STATE RELEVANT INFORMATION QUALITY OF INFORMATION STANDARD BELIEF CERTAINTY
Alabama facts and circumstances known to arresting officers. 1 reasonably trustworthy 2 person of reasonable caution  3 believe that accused has committed the offense 4 (1) need not be enough to convict; probability 5     (2) more than mere suspicion 6
Alaska facts and circumstances known to arresting officers. 7 reasonably trustworthy 8 prudent person 9  reasonable belief 10   objective information 11 (1)offense has been or is being committed 12    (2)the person to be arrested committed it  13 (1) person arrested in all probability committed the crime 14             (2) no mathematical formula 15
Arizona (1) reasonably trustworthy information and circumstances 16  (2) totality of facts and circumstances known to police at time of arrest 17  (3) not subsequent to verification 18 reasonably trustworthy information of facts and circumstances 19 (1) person of reasonable caution 20 (2) reasonably prudent person, objective 20,21,22,23 (1) offense has been committed by suspect 24 (2) felony has been committed by person to be arrested 25 (3) offense is being of has been committed and that the person to be arrested is committing or did commit 26 (1) probability and not prima facie showing for trial 27 (2) less than proof needed to convict and more than unsubstantiated suspicion 28
Arkansas facts and circumstances known to officer 29, 30 (1) reasonably trustworthy 31   (2) sufficiently strong in and of themselves 32 reasonably cautious person 33, 34 (1)offense has been committed by the person to be arrested 35, 36, 37 (1) does not require degree of proof sufficient for conviction 38  (2) mere suspicion or even strong reason to suspect not enough 39
California (1) facts and circumstances known to officer 40            (2) state of facts 41 entertain honest and strong suspicion 42 person of resonable caution 43  Reasonably prudent person 44, 45 (1)offense has been or is being committed by person to be arrested 46  (2) person arrested is guilty of crime 47 (3) person arrested had committed the crime 48,49 (1) more than a hunch 50 (2) no exact formula 51
Colorado (1) facts and circumstances known to officer 52 (2) facts and circumstances available to reasonably cautious officer 53 (3) facts and circumstances 54 NO DATA (1) reasonable belief 55  (2) reasonably prudent person in light of person's training and experience 56 (3) person of reasonable caution 57 crime has been or is being committed by person arrested 58 (1) reasonableness, not mathematical probability 59  (2) probability, not certainty 60
Connecticut facts and circumstances within officer's knowledge 61 trustworthy information 62 reasonably person/reasonable caution 63,64 (1) offense has been committed by suspect  (2) felony has been committed by person to be arrested  (3) offense is being of has been committed and that the person to be arrested is committing or did commit 65,66,68 exceeds mere suspicion 69
Delaware facts and circumstances within officer's knowledge 70 sufficient in themselves 71 man of reasonable caution 72 that offense has been or is being committed 73 somewhere between suspicion and sufficient evidence to convict 74
DC facts and circumstances within officer's knowledge 75 reasonably trustworthy information 76 man of reasonable caution 77 reasonable belief 78 (1) offense has been or is being committed 79 (2) crime has been committed by person being arrested 80 (1) no fixed formula; matter of judgment 81 (2) reasonable probability 82
Florida facts and circumstances 83 as analyzied from officer's knowledge/training/experience 84 considering specialized training of police officer 84 & facts and circumstances known to police officer at time of arrest 85,86 NO DATA reasonable man in light of all facts known by the officer 87,88 reasonable grounds 89 man of reasonable caution 90 (1) offense has been or is being committed 92 (2) crime has been committed by person being arrested 91, 93 need not meet standard of conclusiveness and probability required of circumstantial facts upon which a conviction must be based 94
Georgia objective facts and circumstances 95  & facts and circumstances within knowledge of arresting officers 96 reasonably trustworthy information 97 man of reasonable caution 98 RPP 99 crime has been or is being committed 100 reasonableness and probabilities 101 does not demand same strictness of proof as required at trial 102
Hawaii facts and circumstances personally known to arresting officer 104 exigent circumstances known to officer 103 reasonably trustworthy information 105 reasonable grounds 106; officer of reaosnable caution 107 person arrested has committed or is committing an offense 108 more probable than not standard; prima facie case not required 109
Idaho officer possesses information 110 to believe or entertain honest and strong suspicion 111 person of ordinary care and prudence 112,113 (1) offense has been or is being committed 114 (2) crime has been committed by person being arrested 115 finding of probability 116, does not require certainty of guilt 117
Illinois facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 118 NO DATA person of reasonable caution 119   RPP 120,121 (1) offense has been or is being committed 122 (2) crime has been committed by person being arrested 123 need not be proof beyond a reasonable doubt, more probable than not that defendant commited offense 124  , 125
Indiana facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 126, 127 NO DATA man of reasonable caution and prudence 128 man of reasonable caution 129 person of reasonable caution 130, 131 defendant ccommitted criminal act in question 132, person being arrested has committed or is in process of committing an offense 133 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Iowa facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 135 circumstances 134 reasonably trustworthy information 136 reasonable person/reasonable caution 137/138 (1) offense has been or is being committed 140 (2) crime has been committed by person being arrested 139 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Kansas facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 141/142/143 reasonably trustworthy information 144 RPP 145 believe that accused has committed or is committing the offense 146 need not establish guilt beyond a reasonable doubt; need only lead reasonable officer to believe guilt is more than a possibility 147 beyond mere suspicion 148
Kentucky facts/circumstances within officer's own knowledge or imparted to him by reliable and credible third persons 149/150 reasonably trustworthy information 151 reasonable man acting in good faith 152 reasonable caution 153 (1) offense has been or is being committed 154(2) crime has been committed by person being arrested 155 does not have to be prima facie evidence of guilt 156
Louisiana facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 157 reasonably trustworthy information 158 man of ordinary caution 159 person to be arrested has committed or is committing the crime 160 unfounded suspicion and conjecture do not suffice 161 more probable than not 162
Maine facts known or reasonably believed by officer 163; facts and circumstances within knowledge of police 164 reasonably trustworthy information 165 ordinarily prudent and cautious officer 166 RPP 167 person to be arrested has committed or is committing the crime 168 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Maryland facts and circumstances taken as a whole 169 facts and circumstances within arresting parties' knowledge 170 reasonably trustworthy information 171 reasonably cautious person 172 man of reasonable caution 173 person to be arrested has committed or is committing the crime 174/175 less evidence or belief than required for conviction, but more than mere suspicion 176
Massachusetts evidence before grand jury 177, facts and circumstances in arresting officer's knowledge 178 reasonably trustworthy information 180 RPP 181, 183 person of reasonable caution 182 (1) offense has been or is being committed 184(2) crime has been committed by person being arrested 185 less evidence or belief than required for conviction, but more than mere suspicion 186
Michigan facts available to officer at moment of arrest 187 apparent facts which have come to arresting officer's attention 188 peculiar circumstances confronting arresting officer 189 NO DATA fair minded person of average intelligence 190 reasonably discreet and prudent man 191 man of reasonable prudence and caution 192 (1) offense has been or is being committed 195(2) crime has been committed by person being arrested 194 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Minnesota Objective facts are such that under the circumstances reasonable officer would form opinion 196 honest and strong suspicion 197 person of ordinary care and prudence 198 crime has been committed 199 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Mississippi facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 200 sufficient in themselves 201 man of reasonable caution 202 person has committed the offense 203 less evidence or belief than required for condemnation but more than mere suspicion 204
Missouri police officer had knowledge of facts and circumstances 205 facts and circumstances within knowledge of arresting officers 206 reasonably trustworthy information 208 prudent person 209 person of reasonable caution 210 reasonable person 211 suspect is committing or has committed an offense 212 probability of criminal activity rather than prima facie showing of guilt 214
Montana facts and circumstances within officer's knowledge or upon information imparted by reliable source 215 NO DATA reasonable person 216 person has committed the offense 217 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Nebraska facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 218 reasonably trustworthy information 219 prudent man 220  prudent belief 221 arrestee had committed or was committing an offense 222 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Nevada police have reasonably trustworthy information of facts and circumstances 223; facts and circumstances within the officer's knowledge at time of arrest 224 entertain honest and strong suspicion225 person of reasonable caution 226 prudent person 227 offense has been or is being committed by person to be arrested 228 NO DATA AVAILABLE
New Hampshire facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 231,232 trustworthy information 233; reasonably trustworthy information 234 person of reasonable caution 235; reasonable person 236 suspect is committing or has committed an offense 238 NO DATA AVAILABLE
New Jersey NO DATA AVAILABLE well founded suspicion or belief of guilt 239 reasonable police officer 240 NO DATA AVAILABLE less evidence or belief than required for conviction, but more than mere suspicion 241
New Mexico facts and circumstances within officer's knowledge 242 reasonably trustworthy information 243 person of resasonable caution 244 that an offense has been or is being committed 245 more than suspicion but less than certainty 246
New York evidence available to arresting officer 247 facts and circumstances viewed together 248 NO DATA reasonable prudent person 249 reasonable person 250 arrestee has committed the crime 251 offense was committed and that person arrested was the perpetrator 252 not required to be of magnitude needed to warrant conviction 253
North Carolina facts and circumstances known to arresting officer 254 NO DATA prudent man 255 felony has been committed and person to be arrested is the felon 256 suspect had committed or was committed an offense 257 NO DATA AVAILABLE
North Dakota facts and circumstances in law enforcement officer's knowledge 258 reasonably trustworthy information 259 man of reasonable caution 260/261 offense has been or is being commited 262 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Ohio arresting officer has sufficient information 263 facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 264 reasonably trustworthy source 265 prudent man 266 a felony has been committed and that it has been committed by the accused 267 crime has been committed 268 that an offense has been committed and that it has been committed by the arrestee 269 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Oklahoma facts and circumstances within officer's knowledge at time of arrest 270 reasonably trustworthy information 271 prudent person 272 offense has been or was being committed 273 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Oregon NO DATA AVAILABLE NO DATA substantial objective basis; in addition arresting oficer must have subjective belief 274 that the person has committed an offense 275 more likely than not 276
Pennsylvania facts and circumstances within knowledge of arresting officer 277 reasonably trustworthy and sufficing in themselves 278 man or reasonable caution 279 that person to be arrested has committed offense 280 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Rhode Island facts and circumstances 281 at time of arrest arresting officer has knowledge of facts and circumstances 282 reasonably trustworthy information 283 prudent officer 284 suspect had committed a crime 285 NO DATA AVAILABLE
South Carolina facts and circumstances within knowledge of arresting officer 286 NO DATA Reasonable person 287 crime has been or is being committed by person arrested 288 NO DATA AVAILABLE
South Dakota facts and circumstances within knowledge of arresting officer 289 reasonably trustworthy information 290 man of reasonable caution 291 crime has been committed 292, 293 Does not have to be proof beyone a reasonable doubt 294
Tennessee law enforcement officers had facts and circumstances within their knowledge 295 reasonably trustworthy information 296 prudent man 297  reaosnable man 298 arrestee had committed or was committing an offense 299; that person was guilty 300 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Texas facts and circumstances within knowledge of arresting officer 301 reasonably trustworthy information 302 man of reasonable caution 303, prudent person 304, prudent belief 305 particular person has committed or is committing the offense 306 more likely than not 307
Utah facts known to the officer and the inference which fairly might be drawn therefrom 308 NO DATA reasonable prudent person 309 suspect had committed the offense 310 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Vermont facts and circumstances within the arresting officer's knowledge 311 NO DATA person of reasonable caution 312 crime is being committed 313; that defendant has committed or is in process of committing a felony 314 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Virginia facts and circumstances within the arresting officer's knowledge 315 reasonably trustworthy information 316 person of reasonable caution 317 offense has been or is being committed 318 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Washington circumstances within knowledge of arresting officer 319 facts and circumstances within arresting officer's knowledge 320 NO DATA cautious person 321 person of reasonable caution 322 that individual is guilty of a crime 323  that crime has been committed 324 NO DATA AVAILABLE
West Virginia  facts and circumstances within knowledge of arresting officer 325 NO DATA prudent man 326 offense has been committed 327 NO DATA AVAILABLE
Wyoming facts and circumstances within peace officer's knowledge 328 reasonably trustworthy information 329 reasonably cautious or prudent person 330 that the person harrested has committed crime 331 NO DATA AVAILABLE
ENDNOTES
1. Dixon v. State, 588 So. 2d 903 (Ala. 1991)cert. denied502 U.S. 1044 (1992),Yeager v. State, 207 So. 2d 125 (Ala. 1967).
2. Cox v. State, 489 So. 2d 612 (Ala. Cr. App. 1985); Gord v. State, 475 So. 2d 900 (Ala. Cr. App. 1985)
3. Dixon, 588 So. 2d 903.
5. Stone v. State, 501 So. 2d 562 (Ala. Cr. App. 1986).
6. Jones v. State, 616 So. 2d 949 (Ala. Cr. App. 1993).
7. Cruse v. State, 584 P.2d 1141 (Alaska 1978).
8. Cruse, 584 P.2d 1141.
9. Schmid v. State, 615 P.2d 565 (Alaska 1980).
10. Saucier v. State, 869 P.2d 483 (Alaska Ct. App. 1994).
11. Martin v. State, 797 P.2d 1209 (Alaska Ct. App. 1990).
12. Nome v. Ailak, 570 P.2d 162 (Alaska 1977); Soolook v. State, 447 P.2d 55 (Alaska 1968) cert. denied 396 U.S. 850 (1969); Goss v. State, 390 P.2d 220 (Alaska 1964) cert. denied 379 U.S. 859 (1964).
13. Dunn v. State, 653 P.2d 1071 (Alaska Ct. App. 1982); Erickson v. State, 507 P.2d 508 (Alaska 1973).
14. Richardson v. State, 563 P.2d 266 (Alaska 1977).
15. Mattern v. State, 500 P.2d 228 (Alaska 1972)
16. State v. Moorman, 744 P.2d 679 (Ariz. 1987); Accord State v. Wedding, 831 P.2d 398 (Ariz. Ct. App. Div. 1 1992) review denied (Jun. 30, 1992).
17. State v. Wiley, 698 P.2d 1244 (Ariz. 1985).
18. State v. Romero, 870 P.2d 1141 (Ariz. Ct. App. Div. 1 1993).
19. State v. Nelson, 633 P.2d 391 (Ariz. 1981), State v. Griffin, 570 P.2d 1067 (Ariz. 1977).
20. Moorman, 744 P.2d 679; State v. Gillin, 541 P.2d 1150 (Ariz. 1975).
21. State v. Hein, 674 P.2d 1358 (Ariz. 1983); Accord Nelson, 633 P.2d 391, Griffin, 541 P.2d 1150.
22. State v. Miller, 537 P.2d 965 (Ariz. 1975); State v. Stauffer, 536 P.2d 1044 (Ariz. 1975).
23. State v. Pederson, 424 P.2d 810 (Ariz. 1967) cert. denied 389 U.S. 867 (1967).
24. Moorman, 744 P.2d 679; Accord Wedding, 831 P.2d 398.
25. Hein, 674 P.2d 1358; Gillin, 541 P.2d 1150.
26. Griffin, 570 P.2d 1067.
27. State v. Superior Court, 718 P.2d 189 (Ariz.App. 1985); State v. Emery, 642 P.2d 838 (Ariz. 1982).
28. Hansen v. Garcia, 713 P.2d 1263 (Ariz.App. 1986).
29. Chism v. State, 853 S.W.2d 255 (Ark. 1993); Hart v. State, 852 S.W.2d 312 (Ark. 1993); Crail v. State, 827 S.W.2d 157 (Ark. 1992), Evans v. State, 804 S.W.2d 730 (Ark. Ct. App. 1991); Accord Roderick v. State, 705 S.W.2d 433 (Ark. 1986), Morgan v. State, 691 S.W.2d 164 (Ark. 1985), Gaylor v. State, 681 S.W.2d 348 (Ark. 1984), Urquhart v. State, 782 S.W.2d 591 (Ark. 1976).
30. Accord Stout v. State, 804 S.W.2d 686 (Ark. 1991), Bowden, 761 S.W.2d 148; Accord Sanders, 532 S.W.2d 752.
31. Chism, 853 S.W.2d 255, Hart, 852 S.W.2d 312, Roderick, 705 S.W.2d 433, Gaylor, 681 S.W.2d 348, Conor, 538 S.W.2d 304.
32. Bowden v. State, 761 S.W.2d 148 (Ark. 1988).
33. Chism, 853 S.W.2d 255, Hart, 852 S.W.2d 312, Crail, 827 S.W.2d 157, Morgan, 691 S.W.2d 164, Evans, 804 S.W.2d 730; Accord Roderick, 705 S.W.2d 433, Gaylor, 681 S.W.2d 348, Conor, 538 S.W.2d 304, Urquhart, 782 S.W.2d 591.
34. Conor v. State, 538 S.W.2d 304 (Ark. 1976); Accord Sanders v. State, 532 S.W.2d 752 (Ark. 1976).
35. Crail, 827 S.W.2d 157, Roderick, 705 S.W.2d 433, Morgan, 691 S.W.2d 164; Accord Conor, 538 S.W.2d 304, Evans, 804 S.W.2d 730, Urquhart, 782 S.W.2d 591.
36. Chism, 853 S.W.2d 255; Accord Hart, 852 S.W.2d 312.
37. Stout, 804 S.W.2d 686; Accord Sanders, 532 S.W.2d 752.
38. Friend v. State, 865 S.W.2d 275 (Ark. 1993), Ray v. State, 803 S.W.2d 894 (Ark. 1991) cert. denied 501 U.S. 1222 (1991).
39. Friend, 865 S.W.2d 275.
40. People v. Rhinehart, 507 P.2d 642 (Cal. 1973), Cunha v. Superior Ct., 466 P.2d 704 (Cal. 1970); Accord People v. Edelbach, 766 P.2d 1 (Cal. 1989), People v. Hernandez, 763 P.2d 1289 (Cal. 1989) cert. denied 491 U.S. 910 (1989).
41.Rhinehart, 507 P.2d 642; Accord Cunha, 466 P.2d 704.
42. Edelbacher, 766 P.2d 1, Hernandez, 763 P.2d 1289, Rhinehart, 507 P.2d 642, Cunha, 466 P.2d 704.
43. People v. Souza, 885 P.2d 982 (Cal. 1994).
44. Edelbacher, 766 P.2d 1, Souza, 885 P.2d 982, Hogan, 457 P.2d 868; Accord Hernandez, 763 P.2d 1289, Cunha, 466 P.2d 704.
45. People v. Hogan, 457 P.2d 868 (Cal. 1969), People v. Talley, 423 P.2d 564 (Cal. 1967).
46. Souza, 885 P.2d 982.
47. Edelbacher, 766 P.2d 1; Accord Rhinehart, 507 P.2d 642, Cunha, 466 P.2d 704.
48. Hernandez, 763 P.2d 1289.
49. Hogan, 457 P.2d 868, Talley, 423 P.2d 564.
50. Hernandez, 763 P.2d 1289.
51. Ross, 429 P.2d 606.
52. People v. Washington, 865 P.2d 145 (Colo. 1994), People v. Diaz, 793 P.2d 1181 (Colo. 1990), People v. Thompson, 793 P.2d 1173 (Colo. 1990), People v. McCoy, 832 P.2d 1043 (Colo. Ct. App. 1992); Accord People v. Barros, 835 P.2d 587 (Colo. Ct. App. 1992).
53. People v. Alexander, 797 P.2d 1250 (Colo. 1990).
54. People v. Rayford, 725 P.2d 1142 (Colo. 1986).
55. Washington, 865 P.2d 145, Diaz, 793 P.2d 1181, McCoy, 832 P.2d 1043; Accord People v. Foster, 788 P.2d 825 (Colo. 1990), People v. Ratcliff, 778 P.2d 1371 (Colo. 1989).
56. Thompson, 793 P.2d 1173, Barros, 835 P.2d 587.
57. Rayford, 725 P.2d 1142.
58.Washington, 865 P.2d 145, Alexander, 797 P.2d 1250, Diaz, 793 P.2d 1181, McCoy, 832 P.2d 1043, Rayford, 725 P.2d 1142; Accord Thompson, 793 P.2d 1173, Barros, 835 P.2d 587, Foster, 788 P.2d 825, Ratcliff, 778 P.2d 1371.
59. People v. McCoy, 870 P.2d 1231 (Colo. 1994), Rayford, 725 P.2d 1142.
60. People v. Hakel, 870 P.2d 1224 (Colo. 1994) cert. denied 115 S. Ct. 325 (1994), Washington, 865 P.2d 145.
61. State v. Asherman, 478 A.2d 227 (Conn. 1984) cert. denied 470 U.S. 1050 (1985), State v. Acquin, 448 A.2d 163 (Conn. 1982) cert. denied 463 U.S. 1229 (1983), State v. Hoffler, 389 A.2d 1257 (Conn. 1978), State v. Pierog, 634 A.2d 301 (Conn. App. Ct. 1993) cert. denied 636 A.2d 851 (Conn. 1994).
62. Asherman, 478 A.2d 227, Acquin, 448 A.2d 163; Accord Hoffler, 389 A.2d 1257.
63. Asherman, 478 A.2d 227, Pierog, 634 A.2d 301.
64. Acquin, 448 A.2d 163, Hoffler, 389 A.2d 1257.
65. Pierog, 634 A.2d 301.
66. Asherman, 478 A.2d 227.
67. Acquin, 448 A.2d 163, Hoffler, 389 A.2d 1257.
68. Pierog, 634 A.2d 301.
69. State v. Dennis, 456 A.2d 333 (Conn. 1983).
70. State v. Cochran, 372 A.2d 193 (Del. Super. Ct. 1977).
71. Id.
72. Id.
73. Id.
74. Id.
75. Spinner v. U.S., 618 A.2d 176 (U.S. App. D.C. 1992), West v. U.S., 604 A.2d 422 (U.S. App. D.C. 1992), Accord Rucker v. U.S., 455 A.2d 889 (U.S. App. D.C. 1983), Smith v. U.S., 435 A.2d 1066 (U.S. App. D.C. 1981) cert. denied 455 U.S. 950 (1982), U.S. v. Childs, 379 A.2d 1188 (U.S. App. D.C. 1977).
76. Spinner, 618 A.2d 176, West, 604 A.2d 422, Rucker, 455 A.2d 889, Smith, 435 A.2d 1066.
77. Spinner, 618 A.2d 176, Smith, 435 A.2d 1066; Accord West, 604 A.2d 422, Childs, 379 A.2d 1188.
78. Rucker, 455 A.2d 889.
79. Spinner, 618 A.2d 176, West, 604 A.2d 422, Rucker, 455 A.2d 889, Smith, 435 A.2d 1066.
80. Childs, 379 A.2d 1188.
81. Smith, 435 A.2d 1066.
82. Nixon v. U.S., 402 A.2d 816 (U.S. App. D.C. 1979).
83. Benefield v. State, 160 So. 2d 706 (Fla. 1964).
84. City of Jacksonville v. Alexander, 487 So. 2d 1144 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1 1986).
85. Schmitt v. State, 590 So. 2d 404 (Fla. 1991) cert. denied 503 U.S. 964 (1992).
86. State v. McCormack, 517 So. 2d 73 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 3 1987).
87. State v. Outten, 206 So. 2d 392 (Fla. 1968).
88. Schmitt, 590 So. 2d 404.
89. Blanco v. State, 452 So. 2d 520 (Fla. 1984) cert. denied 469 U.S. 1181 (1985), Robinson v. State, 556 So. 2d 450 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1 1990).
90. Benefield, 160 So. 2d 706.
91. Blanco, 452 So. 2d 520.
92. Alexander, 487 So. 2d 1144, McCormack, 517 So. 2d 73.
93. Schmitt, 590 So. 2d 404.
94. Outten, 206 So. 2d 392, Blanco, 452 So. 2d 520.
95. Williams v. State, 312 S.E.2d 40 (Ga. 1983); Accord Burnette v. State, 309 S.E.2d 875 (Ga. Ct. App. 1983).
96. Durden v. State, 297 S.E.2d 237 (Ga. 1982), Newsome v. State, 386 S.E.2d 887 (Ga. Ct. App. 1989), Moore v. State, 331 S.E.2d 115 (Ga. Ct. App. 1985); Accord Borden v. State, 277 S.E.2d 9 (Ga.1981), Ellis v. State, 296 S.E.2d 726 (Ga. Ct. App. 1982) cert. denied 462 U.S. 1119 (1983).
97. Durden, 297 S.E.2d 237, Newsome, 386 S.E.2d 887, Ellis, 296 S.E.2d 726.
98. Williams, 312 S.E.2d 40, Moore, 331 S.E.2d 115, Burnette, 309 S.E.2d 875.
99. Durden, 297 S.E.2d 237, Borden, 277 S.E.2d 9, Newsome, 386 S.E.2d 887, Ellis, 296 S.E.2d 726.
100. Williams, 312 S.E.2d 40, Moore, 331 S.E.2d 115; Accord Durden, 297 S.E.2d 237, Newsome, 386 S.E.2d 887, Burnette, 309 S.E.2d 875, Ellis, 296 S.E.2d 726.
101. State v. Grant, 355 S.E.2d 646 (Ga. 1987).
102. Harley v. State, 358 S.E.2d 653 (Ga. Ct. App. 1987).
103. State v. Sequin, 851 P.2d 926 (Haw. Ct. App. 1993).
104. State v. Ortiz, 662 P.2d 517 (Haw. Ct. App. 1983), State v. Lloyd, 606 P.2d 913 (Haw. 1980).
105. Sequin, 851 P.2d 926, Ortiz, 662 P.2d 517; Accord Lloyd, 606 P.2d 913.
106. Ortiz, 662 P.2d 517, Lloyd, 606 P.2d 913.
107. Sequin, 851 P.2d 926.
108. Sequin, 851 P.2d 926, Ortiz, 662 P.2d 517, Lloyd, 606 P.2d 913.
109. Sequin, 851 P.2d 926.
110. State v. Quimby, 834 P.2d 906 (Idaho Ct. App. 1992).; Accord State v. Kysar, 783 P.2d 859 (Idaho, 1989), State v. Schmidt, 825 P.2d 104 (Idaho Ct. App. 1992), State v. Webb, 794 P.2d 1155 (Idaho Ct. App. 1990).
111. Kysar, 783 P.2d 859, Quimby, 834 P.2d 906; Accord Schmidt, 825 P.2d 104, Webb, 794 P.2d 1155.
112. Kysar, 783 P.2d 859, Quimby, 834 P.2d 906.
113. Schmidt, 825 P.2d 104, Webb, 794 P.2d 1155.
114. Kysar, 783 P.2d 859, Quimby, 834 P.2d 906.
115. Schmidt, 825 P.2d 104, Webb, 794 P.2d 1155.
116. State v. Zubizareta, 839 P.2d 1237 (Idaho Ct. App. 1992).
117. Webb, 794 P.2d 1155.
118. People v. Henderson, 640 N.E.2d 1344 (Ill. App. Ct. 1 Dist. 1994); Accord People v. Almendarez, 639 N.E.2d 619 (Ill. App. Ct. 1 Dist. 1994) cert. denied 115 S. Ct. 1319 (1995), People v. Lukach, 635 N.E.2d 1053 (Ill. App. Ct. 2 Dist. 1994), People v. Hood, 638 N.E.2d 264 (Ill. Ct. App. 4 Dist.), People v. Montgomery, 494 N.E.2d 475 (Ill. 1986) cert. denied 479 U.S. 1101 (1987).
119. Henderson, 640 N.E.2d 1344.
120. Almendarez, 639 N.E.2d 619.
121. Lukach, 635 N.E.2d 1053, Hood, 638 N.E.2d 264; Accord Montgomery, 494 N.E.2d 475.
122. Henderson, 640 N.E.2d 1344.
123. Almendarez, 639 N.E.2d 619; Accord Lukach, 635 N.E.2d 1053, Hood, 638 N.E.2d 264, Montgomery, 494 N.E.2d 475.
124. People v. McClom, 635 N.E.2d 677 (Ill. App. Ct. 1 Dist. 1994).
125. Lukach, 635 N.E.2d 1053.
126. Foster v. State, 633 N.E.2d 337 (Ind. Ct. App. 5 Dist. 1994), Geimer v. State, 591 N.E.2d 1016 (Ind. 1992).
127. Roberts v. State, 599 N.E.2d 595 (Ind. 1992); Accord Jackson v. State, 597 N.E.2d 950 (Ind. 1992).
128. Foster, 633 N.E.2d 337.
129. Roberts, 599 N.E.2d 595.
130. Jackson, 597 N.E.2d 950.
131. Geimer, 591 N.E.2d 1016.
132. Foster, 633 N.E.2d 337, Geimer, 591 N.E.2d 1016; Accord Roberts, 599 N.E.2d 595.
133. Jackson, 597 N.E.2d 950.
134. State v. Shane, 255 N.W.2d 324 (Iowa 1977).
135. State v. Morris, 227 N.W.2d 150 (Iowa 1975).
136. Morris, 227 N.W.2d 150.
137. Shane, 255 N.W.2d 324.
138. Morris, 227 N.W.2d 150.
139. Shane, 255 N.W.2d 324.
140. Morris, 227 N.W.2d 150.
141. State v. Mayberry, 807 P.2d 86 (Kan. 1991).
142. State v. Kendig, 865 P.2d 218 (Kan. Ct. App. 1993).
143. Sullivan v. Kansas Dept. of Revenue, 815 P.2d 566 (Kan.Ct. App. 1991).
144. Kendig, 865 P.2d 218.
145. Mayberry, 807 P.2d 86, Kendig, 865 P.2d 218, Sullivan, 815 P.2d 566.
146. Mayberry, 807 P.2d 86, Sullivan, 815 P.2d 566; Accord Kendig, 865 P.2d 218.
147. Sullivan, 815 P.2d 566.
148. Mayberry, 807 P.2d 86.
149. Darden v. Com., 298 S.W.2d 687 (Ky. 1957).
150. Davidson v. Com., 613 S.W.2d 431 (Ky. Ct. App. 1981).
151. Davidson, 613 S.W.2d 431.
152. Darden, 298 S.W.2d 687.
153. Davidson, 613 S.W.2d 431.
154. Darden, 298 S.W.2d 687.
155. Davidson, 613 S.W.2d 431.
156. Brewster v. Com., 278 S.W.2d 63 (Ky. 1955).
157. State v. Simms, 571 So. 2d 145 (La. 1990), State v. Moreno, 619 So. 2d 145 (La. 1990), State v. Gates, 630 So. 2d 1345 (La. Ct. App. 2 Cir. 1988); Accord State v. Zayas, 137 So. 2d 1237 (La. Ct. App. 4 Cir. 1994).
158. Gates, 630 So. 2d 1345; Accord Moreno, 619 So. 2d 145.
159. Simms, 571 So. 2d 145, Moreno, 619 So. 2d 145, Gates, 630 So. 2d 1345; Accord Zayas, 137 So. 2d 1237.
160. Simms, 571 So. 2d 145, Moreno, 619 So. 2d 145, Gates, 630 So. 2d 1345, Zayas, 137 So. 2d 1237.
161. Miller v. East Baton Rouge Parish Sheriff's Dept., 511 So. 2d 446 (La. 1987).
162. State v. Franklin, 598 So. 2d 1147 (La. Ct. App. 1 Cir. 1992).
163. State v. Enggass, 571 A.2d 823 (Me. 1990).
164. State v. Candage, 549 A.2d 355 (Me. 1988); Accord State v. Anderson, 447 A.2d 827 (Me. 1982), State v. Fogg, 410 A.2d 548 (Me. 1980).
165. Candage, 549 A.2d 355, Anderson, 447 A.2d 827, Fogg, 410 A.2d 548.
166. Enggass, 571 A.2d 823.
167. Candage, 549 A.2d 355, Anderson, 447 A.2d 827, Fogg, 410 A.2d 548.
168. Candage, 549 A.2d 355; Accord Anderson, 447 A.2d 827, Fogg, 410 A.2d 548.
169. Collins v. State, 589 A.2d 479 (Md. 1991).
170. Stevenson v. State, 413 A.2d 1340 (Md. 1980); Accord Brown v. Ashton, 611 A.2d 599 (Md. App. 1992), Aguilar v. State, 594 A.2d 1167 (Md. App. 1991), Green v. State, 551 A.2d 127 (Md. App. 1989) cert. denied 556 A.2d 674 (1989).
171. Stevenson, 413 A.2d 1340, Aguilar, 594 A.2d 1167, Green, 551 A.2d 127.
172. Collins, 589 A.2d 479, Green, 551 A.2d 127.
173. Stevenson, 413 A.2d 1340, Aguilar, 594 A.2d 1167; Accord Brown, 611 A.2d 599.
174. Collins, 589 A.2d 479, Green, 551 A.2d 127; Accord Brown, 611 A.2d 599.
175. Stevenson, 413 A.2d 1340, Aguilar, 594 A.2d 1167.
176. Doering v. State, 545 A.2d 1281 (Md. 1988).
177. Com v. Roman, 609 N.E.2d 1217 (Mass. 1993).
178. Com. v. Crawford, 571 N.E.2d 7 (Mass. 1991); Accord Com. v. Olivares, 571 N.E.2d 416 (Mass.App.Ct. 1991), Com. v. Hason, 439 N.E.2d 251 (Mass. 1982).
179. Com. v. Pietrass, 467 N.E.2d 1368 (Mass. 1984).
180. Roman, 609 N.E.2d 1217, Crawford, 571 N.E.2d 7, Olivares, 571 N.E.2d 416, Hason, 439 N.E.2d 251.
181. Roman, 609 N.E.2d 1217.
182. Crawford, 571 N.E.2d 7; Accord Olivares, 571 N.E.2d 416, Hason, 439 N.E.2d 251.
183. Pietrass, 467 N.E.2d 1368.
184. Roman, 609 N.E.2d 1217.
185. Crawford, 571 N.E.2d 7; Accord Olivares, 571 N.E.2d 416, Pietrass, 467 N.E.2d 1368, Hason, 439 N.E.2d 251.
186. Hason, 439 N.E.2d 251.
187. People v. Summers, 286 N.W.2d 226 (Mich. 1979), People v. Kyser, 307 N.W.2d 447 (Mich.App. 1981).
188. People ex. rel. Winkle v. Bannon, 125 N.W.2d 875 (Mich. 1964).
189. People v. Harper, 113 N.W.2d 808 (Mich. 1962).
190. Summers, 286 N.W.2d 226.
191. Bannon, 125 N.W.2d 875.
192. Harper, 113 N.W.2d 808.
193. Kyser, 307 N.W.2d 447.
194. Summers, 286 N.W.2d 226, Kyser, 307 N.W.2d 447; Accord Harper, 113 N.W.2d 808.
195. Bannon, 125 N.W.2d 875.
196. State v. Johnson, 314 N.W.2d 229 (Minn. 1982).
197. Id.
198. Id.
199. Id.
200. Seales v. State, 495 So. 2d 475 (Miss. 1986).
201. Seales, 495 So. 2d 475.
202. Id.
203. Id.
204. Wagner v. State, 624 So. 2d 60 (Miss. 1993).
205. State v. Childs, 876 S.W.2d 781 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1994) cert. denied 115 S. Ct. 589 (1994).
206. State v. Sidebottom, 753 S.W.2d 915 (Mo. 1988) cert. denied 488 U.S. 975 (1988); Accord State v. Hunn, 821 S.W.2d 866 (Mo. Ct. App. 1991).
207. State v. Spraggins, 839 S.W.2d 599 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1992).
208. Hunn, 821 S.W.2d 866, Sidebottom, 753 S.W.2d 915.
209. Childs, 876 S.W.2d 781, Spraggins, 839 S.W.2d 599.
210. Sidebottom, 753 S.W.2d 915, Hunn, 821 S.W.2d 866.
211. State v. Richardson, 810 S.W.2d 544 (Mo. Ct. App. 1991).
212. Childs, 876 S.W.2d 781, Spraggins, 839 S.W.2d 599, Hunn, 821 S.W.2d 866; Accord Richardson, 810 S.W.2d 544.
213. Sidebottom, 753 S.W.2d 915.
214. Wilcox v. Director of Revenue, 842 S.W.2d 240 (Mo. Ct. App. W.D. 1992).
215. Jess v. State, 841 P.2d 1137 (Mont. 1992), State v. Schoffner, 811 P.2d 548 (Mont. 1991); Accord City of Missoula v. Forest, 769 P.2d 699 (Mont. 1989).
216. Jess, 841 P.2d 1137, Schoffner, 811 P.2d 548, Forest, 769 P.2d 699.
217. Jess, 841 P.2d 1137, Schoffner, 811 P.2d 548, Forest, 769 P.2d 699.
218. State v. Nowicki, 309 N.W.2d 89 (Neb. 1981); Accord State v. Ranson, 511 N.W.2d 97 (Neb. 1994).
219. Nowicki, 309 N.W.2d 89, Ranson, 511 N.W.2d 97.
220. Nowicki, 309 N.W.2d 89.
221. Ranson, 511 N.W.2d 97.
222. Nowicki, 309 N.W.2d 89; Accord Ranson, 511 N.W.2d 97.
223. Doleman v. State, 812 P.2d 1287 (Nev. 1991).
224. Franklin v. State, 610 P.2d 732 (Nev. 1980), Deutscher v. State, 601 P.2d 407 (Nev. 1979).
225. Duetscher, 601 P.2d 407.
226. Doleman, 812 P.2d 1287.
227. Franklin, 610 P.2d 732, Deutscher, 601 P.2d 407.
228. Doleman, 812 P.2d 1287.
229. Franklin, 610 P.2d 732.
230. Deutscher, 601 P.2d 407.
231. State v. Vachon, 533 A.2d 384 (N.H. 1987), State v. Rodrigue, 506 A.2d 299 (N.H. 1985).
232. Birmingham, 453 A.2d 1329.
233. Vachon, 533 A.2d 384, Rodrigue, 506 A.2d 299.
234. State v. Birmingham, 453 A.2d 1329 (N.H. 1982).
235. Vachon, 533 A.2d 384, Rodrigue, 506 A.2d 299.
236. Birmingham, 453 A.2d 1329.
237. Vachon, 533 A.2d 384, Rodrigue, 506 A.2d 299.
238. Birmingham, 453 A.2d 1329.
239. State v. Bates, 495 A.2d 422 (N.J.Super.A.D. 1985).
240. Id.
241. Id.
242. State v. Affsprung, 854 P.2d 873 (N.M. Ct. App. 1993) cert. denied 854 P.2d 872 (1993), State v. Manes, 812 P.2d 1309 (N.M.Ct. App. 1991) cert. denied 502 U.S. 942 (1991) rehearing denied 502 U.S. 1124 (1992), State v. Goss, 807 P.2d 228 (N.M. Ct. App. 1991) cert. denied 806 P.2d 65 (1991).
243. Affsprung, 854 P.2d 873, Manes, 812 P.2d 1309.
244. Affsprung, 854 P.2d 873, Manes, 812 P.2d 1309, Goss, 807 P.2d 228.
245. Affsprung, 854 P.2d 873, Manes, 812 P.2d 1309, Goss, 807 P.2d 228.
246. Goss, 807 P.2d 228.
247. People v. Davis, 595 N.Y.S.2d 778 (N.Y. App. Div. 1 Dept. 1993) appeal denied 619 N.E.2d 669 (1993).
248. People v. Reyes, 594 N.Y.S.2d 55 (N.Y. App. Div. 2 Dept. 1993).
249. Davis, 595 N.Y.S.2d 778.
250. Reyes, 594 N.Y.S.2d 55.
251. Davis, 595 N.Y.S.2d 778.
252. Reyes, 594 N.Y.S.2d 55.
253. People v. Ward, 582 N.Y.S.2d 432 (N.Y. App. Div. 1 Dept. 1992) appeal denied 611 N.E.2d 787 (1993).
254. State v. Farmer, 424 S.E.2d 120 (N.C. 1993), State v. Williams, 333 S.E.2d 708 (N.C. 1985); Accord State v. Brown, 337 S.E.2d 808 (N.C. 1985) cert. denied 476 U.S. 1164 (1986).
255. Farmer, 424 S.E.2d 120; Accord Brown, 337 S.E.2d 808, Williams, 333 S.E.2d 708.
256. Farmer, 424 S.E.2d 120.
257. Williams, 333 S.E.2d 708, Brown, 337 S.E.2d 808.
258. State v. Klevgaard, 306 N.W.2d 185 (N.D. 1981); Accord State v. Woytassek, 491 N.W.2d 709 (N.D. 1992), State v. Prigge, 437 N.W.2d 520 (N.D. 1989).
259. Klevgaard, 306 N.W.2d 185; Accord Woytassek, 491 N.W.2d 709, Prigge, 437 N.W.2d 520.
260. Klevgaard, 306 N.W.2d 185.
261. Woytassek, 491 N.W.2d 709, Prigge, 437 N.W.2d 520.
262. Klevgaard, 306 N.W.2d 185, Woytassek, 491 N.W.2d 709, Prigge, 437 N.W.2d 520.
263. State v. Timson, 311 N.E.2d 16 (Ohio 1974).
264. State v. Price, 608 N.E.2d 1088 (Ohio Ct. App. 9 Dist. 1992), State v. Pavao, 528 N.E.2d 970 (Ohio Ct. App. 1987); Accord State v. Ingram, 484 N.E.2d 227 (Ohio Ct. App. 1984), State v. Roach, 455 N.E.2d 1328 (Ohio Ct. App. 1982).
265. Timson, 311 N.E.2d 16, Ingram, 484 N.E.2d 227, Roach, 455 N.E.2d 1328.
266. Timson, 311 N.E.2d 16, Pavao, 528 N.E.2d 970, Ingram, 484 N.E.2d 227, Roach, 455 N.E.2d 1328; Accord Price, 608 N.E.2d 1088.
267. Timson, 311 N.E.2d 16.
268. Price, 608 N.E.2d 1088; Accord Pavao, 528 N.E.2d 970, Ingram, 484 N.E.2d 227.
269. Roach, 455 N.E.2d 1328.
270. Davis v. State, 792 P.2d 76 (Okla. Crim. App. 1990).
271. Id.
272. Id.
273. Id.
274. State v. Koester, 843 P.2d 968 (Or. Ct. App. 1992) review denied 849 P.2d 524 (1993), State v. Morgan, 806 P.2d 713 (Or. Ct. App. 1991) review denied 819 P.2d 731 (1991).
275. Koester, 843 P.2d 968, Morgan, 806 P.2d 713.
276. Koester, 843 P.2d 968, Morgan, 806 P.2d 713.
277. Com. Edmiston, 634 A.2d 1078 (Pa. 1993), Com. v. Zook, 615 A.2d 1 (Pa. 1992) cert. denied 113 S. Ct. 1420 (1993), Com. v. Travaglia, 467 A.2d 288 (Pa. 1983).
278. Edmiston, 634 A.2d 1078, Zook, 615 A.2d 1, Travaglia, 467 A.2d 288.
279. Edmiston, 634 A.2d 1078; Accord Zook, 615 A.2d 1, Travaglia, 467 A.2d 288.
280. Edmiston, 634 A.2d 1078, Zook, 615 A.2d 1; Accord Travaglia, 467 A.2d 288.
281. State v. Ellis, 619 A.2d 418 (R.I. 1993).
282. State v. Brennan, 526 A.2d 483 (R.I. 1987).
283. Ellis, 619 A.2d 418; Accord Brennan, 526 A.2d 483.
284. Ellis, 619 A.2d 418, Brennan, 526 A.2d 483.
285. Ellis, 619 A.2d 418; Accord Brennan, 526 A.2d 483.
286. State v. Moultrie, 451 S.E.2d 34 (S.C. Ct App. 1994).
287. Id.
288. Id.
289. State v. Oyen, 286 N.W.2d 317 (S.D. 1979), State v. Hermandson, 169 N.W.2d 255 (S.D. 1969).
290. Oyen, 286 N.W.2d 317.
291. Oyen, 286 N.W.2d 317, Hermandson, 169 N.W.2d 255.
292. Oyen, 286 N.W.2d 317.
293. Hermandson, 169 N.W.2d 255.
294. State v. James, 286 N.W.2d 534 (S.D. 1979).
295. State v. Marshall, 870 S.W.2d 532 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1993).
296. Marshall, 870 S.W.2d 532.
297. Marshall, 870 S.W.2d 532.
298. State v. Melson, 638 S.W.2d 342 (Tenn. 1982), State v. Burton, 751 S.W.2d 440 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1988).
299. Marshall, 870 S.W.2d 532.
300. Melson, 638 S.W.2d 342; Accord Burton, 751 S.W.2d 440.
301. Torres v. State, 868 S.W.2d 798 (Tex. Crim. App. 1993), Barnes v. State, 870 S.W.2d 74 (Tex. Ct. App.- Houst. [1 Dist.] 1993), Guzman v. State, 867 S.W.2d 126 (Tex. Ct. App.- Austin 1993), Rosalez v. State, 875 S.W.2d 705 (Tex. Ct. App.- Dallas 1993); Accord Hughes v. State, 878 S.W.2d 142 (Tex. Crim. App. 1992).
302. Torres, 868 S.W.2d 798, Barnes, 870 S.W.2d 74, Rosalez, 875 S.W.2d 705, Hughes, 878 S.W.2d 142.
303. Torres, 868 S.W.2d 798, Rosalez, 875 S.W.2d 705; Accord Hughes, 878 S.W.2d 142.
304. Barnes, 870 S.W.2d 74.
305. Guzman, 867 S.W.2d 126.
306. Torres, 868 S.W.2d 798; Accord Barnes, 870 S.W.2d 74, Guzman, 867 S.W.2d 126, Rosalez, 875 S.W.2d 705, Hughes, 878 S.W.2d 142.
307. Hughes, 878 S.W.2d 142.
308. State v. Cole, 674 P.2d 119 (Utah 1983), State v. Whittenback, 621 P.2d 103 (Utah 1980).
309. Cole, 674 P.2d 119, Whittenback, 621 P.2d 103.
310. Cole, 674 P.2d 119, Whittenback, 621 P.2d 103.
311. State v. Greenslit, 559 A.2d 672 (Vt. 1989), State v. Meunier, 409 A.2d 583 (Vt. 1979).
312. Greenslit, 559 A.2d 672; Accord Meunier, 409 A.2d 583.
313. Greenslit, 559 A.2d 672.
314. Meunier, 409 A.2d 583.
315. Jones v. Com., 443 S.E.2d 189 (Va. Ct. App. 1994).
316. Id.
317. Id.
318. Id.
319. State v. Thompson, 848 P.2d 1317 (Wash. Ct. App. Div.1 1993), State v. Blair, 827 P.2d 356 (Wash. Ct. App. 1992).
320. State v. Rogers, 855 P.2d 294 (Wash. Ct. App. Div.2 1993) review denied 868 P.2d 872 (1994).
321. Thompson, 848 P.2d 1317, Blair, 827 P.2d 356.
322. Rogers, 855 P.2d 294.
323. Thompson, 848 P.2d 1317, Blair, 827 P.2d 356.
324. Rogers, 855 P.2d 294.
325. State v. Giles, 395 S.E.2d 481 (W. Va. 1990), State v. Cook, 332 S.E.2d 147 (W. Va. 1985), State v. Boswell, 294 S.E.2d 287 (W. Va. 1982).
326. Giles, 395 S.E.2d 481, Cook, 332 S.E.2d 147, Boswell, 294 S.E.2d 287.
327. Giles, 395 S.E.2d 481, Cook, 332 S.E.2d 147, Boswell, 294 S.E.2d 287.
328. Lobatos v. State, 875 P.2d 716 (Wyo. 1994); Accord Goettl v. State, 842 P.2d 549 (Wyo. 1992).
329. Lobatos, 875 P.2d 716, Goettl, 842 P.2d 549.
330. Lobatos, 875 P.2d 716, Goettl, 842 P.2d 549.
331. Lobatos, 875 P.2d 716; Accord Goettl, 842 P.2d 549.