Abramowitz, A. I. (1978). The impact of a presidential debate on voter rationality. American Journal of Political Science, 22, 680-690.

Asard, E., & Gronbeck, B. E. (2000). Televised party leader and presidential candidate debates in Sweden and the United States. T. A. Hollihan (Ed.), Argument at century's end: Reflecting on the past and envisioning the future (pp. 394-402). Annandale, VA: National Communication Association.

The aftermath of round three (1992, Oct. 24). Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 50, 3336. [provides #s on viewership]

Alexander, H. & Margolis, J. (1978). The making of the debates. In G. Bishop, R. Meadow, & M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral and policy perspectives (pp. 18-32). New York: Praeger.

An C. & Pfau, M. (2004). The efficacy of inoculation in televised political debates. Journal of Communication, 54, 421-436.

Anderson, J. B. (1988). A proper institution: Guaranteeing televised presidential debates. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute.

Apker, J., & Voss. R. W. (1994). The student voter. In D. B. Carlin and M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 187-202). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Atkin, C., Hocking, J., & McDermott, S. (1979). Home state voter response and secondary media coverage. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Auer, J. J. (1962). The counterfeit debates. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp.142-150). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Auer, J. J. (1981). Great myths about the great debates. Speaker and Gavel, 18,14-21.

Auer, J. J. (1986). Presidential debates: Public understanding and political institutionalization. Speaker and Gavel, 24,1-7.

Bacheler, V. (1987, May). Local televised debates: Style versus content. Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Canada.

Baker, K., & Walter, O. (1977, April). The 1976 presidential debate and political behavior in Wyoming. Paper presented at the meeting of the Western Social Science Association, Denver, CO.

Baker, K. L., & Norpoth, H. (1981). Candidates on the television: The content and impact of electoral debates in West Germany. Public Opinion Quarterly, 45, 329-345.

Barmann, B. C. (1990). Third party candidate and presidential debates. Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems, 441-466.

Barbaros, C. (2012). Exploring televised political debates: Strategies and issues. Argumentum: Journal of Argumentation Theory & Rhetoric, 10, 140-149. (Romania)

Barrow, L. (1961). Factors related to attention to the first Kennedy-Nixon debate. Journal of Broadcasting, 5, 229-238.

Barrow, R. L. (1977). Presidential debates of 1976: Toward a two party political system. University of Cincinnati Law Review, 46, 123-149.

Bartels, L. M. (1988). Presidential primaries and dynamics of public choice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Bates, S. (1993, February). The Future of Presidential Debates. http://www.annenberg.nwu.edu/pubs/debate/Battle of the sexes (1992, Sept-Oct). Psychology Today, 25, 13.

Bechtolt, W. E., Jr., Hilyard, J., & Bybee, C. R. (1977). Agenda control in the 1976 debates: A content analysis. Journalism Quarterly, 54, 674-681.

Beck, C. S. (1996). "I’ve got some points I’d like to make here": The achievement of social face through turn management during the 1992 Vice President debate. Political Communication, 13, 165-180.

Becker, L., Sobowale, I., Cobbey, R., & Eyal, C. H. (1978). Debates' effects on voters' understanding of candidates and issues. In G. Bishop, R. Meadow, and M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspective (pp. 126-139). New York: Praeger.

Becker, L. B., Weaver, D. H., Graber, D. A., & McCombs, M. E. (1979). Influence on public agendas. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 418-428). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Becker, S., & Lower, E. (1962). Broadcasting in presidential campaigns. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 25-55).

Becker, S. L., Pepper, R., Wenner, L., & Kim, J. (1979). Information flow and the shaping of meaning. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 384-397). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Benoit, W. L. (2013). Candidates' personal qualities In political leaders' debates. Human Communication, 16, 87-94.

Benoit, W. L., (2007). Determinates of defense in presidential debates. Communication Research Reports, 24, 319-325.

Benoit, W. L. (2000, May). Let's put "debate" into presidential debates. Rostrum, 74, 21-24.

Benoit, W. L., & Arnie, D. (2005). A functional analysis of American vice presidential debates. Argumentation and Advocacy, 41, 225-236.

Benoit, W. L., Blaney, J. R., & Pier, P. M. (1998). Debates: A free-for-all. In W. L Benoit, J. R. Blaney, & P. M. Pier (Eds.), Campaign '96: A functional analysis of acclaiming, attacking, and defending (pp. 57-74). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Benoit, W. L., & Brazeal, L. M. (2002). A functional analysis of the 1988 Bush-Dukakis presidential debates. The Journal of the American Forensic Association: Argumentation and Advocacy, 38, 219-233.

Benoit, W. L., Brazeal, L. M., & Airne, D. (2006). A functional analysis of U.S. Senate campaign debates. Unpublished manuscript.

Benoit, W. L., & Currie, H. (2001). Inaccuracies in media coverage of the 1996 and 2000 presidential debates. Argumentation and Advocacy, 38, 28-39.

Benoit, W., & Davis, C. (2007).  Newspaper Coverage of U.S. Senate Debates. Speaker and Gavel, 44, 13-26.

Benoit, W. L., & Delbert, J. (2009). A functional analysis of the Lincoln-Douglas debates. Argumentation & Advocacy, 46, 110-115.

Benoit, W. L., & Hansen, G. J. (2004). Presidential debate watching, issue knowledge, character evaluation and vote choice. Human Communication Research, 30, 124-144.

Benoit, W. L, & Hansen, G. J. (2004). Issue ownership in primary and general presidential debates. Argumentation & Advocacy, 40, 143-154.

Benoit, W. L., & Hansen, G. J. (2002). Issue adaptation of presidential television spots and debates to primary and general audiences. Communication Research Reports, 19, 138-145.

Benoit, W. L., & Hansen, G. J. (2001). Presidential debate questions and the public agenda. Communication Quarterly, 49, 130-141.

Benoit, W. L., Hansen, G. J., & Stein, K. A. (2004). Newspaper coverage of presidential primary debates. Argumentation and Advocacy, 40, 246-258.

Benoit, W. L., Hansen, G. J., & Verser, R. M. (2003). A meta-analysis of the effects of viewing U.S. presidential debates. Communication Monographs, 70, 335-350.

Benoit, W. L., & Henson, J. R. (2009). A functional analysis of the 2008 Vice Presidential debate: Biden versus Palin. Argumentation and Advocacy, 46, 39-50.

Benoit, W. L., & Harthcock, A. (1999). Functions of the Great Debates: Acclaims, attacks, and defenses in the 1960 presidential debates. Communication Monographs, 66, 341-357.

Benoit, W. L., & Henson, J. (2007). A functional analysos of the 2006 Canadian and 2007 Australian elections. Argumentation & Advocacy, 44, 36-48

Benoit, W. L., & Henson, J. (2006). A functional analysis of non-presidential primary debates, Speaker & Gavel, 43 , 22-35.

Benoit, W. L. , Henson, J. R., & Maltos, S. (In press). A functional analysis of American mayoral debates. Contemporary Argumentation and Debate, 27.

Benoit, W. L., McHale, G. J., Pier, P. M., & McGuire, J. P. (2003). Campaign 2000: A functional analysis of acclaiming, attacking, and defending. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Benoit, W. L., McKinney, M. S., & Stephenson, M. T. (2002). Effects of watching primary debates in the 2000 U.S. presidential campaign. Journal of Communication, 52, :316-331.

Benoit, W. L., McKinney, M. S., & Holbert, R. L. (2001). Beyond learning and persona: extending the scope of presidential debate effects. Communication Monographs, 68, 259-273.

Benoit, W. L., Pier, P. M., Brazeal, L. M., McHale, J. P., Klyukovksi, A., & Airne. D. (2002). The primary decision: A functional analysis of debates in presidential primaries. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Benoit, W. L., Stein, K. A., Hansen, G. J. (2004). Newspaper coverage of presidential debates. Argumentation and Advocacy, 41, 17-27.

Benoit, W. L., & Stephenson, M. T. (2004). Effects of watching a presidential primary debate. Contemporary Argumentation and Debate, 25, 1-25.

Benoit, W. L., & Sudbrock, L. A. (2008). Functional analysis of the 2008 Saddleback Presidential Forum. Contemporary Argumentation and Debate, 29, 68-84.

Benoit, W. L., Webber, D. J., & Berman, J. (1998). Effects of presidential debate watching and ideology on attitudes and knowledge. Argumentation and Advocacy, 34, 163-172.

Benoit, W. L., & Wells, W. T. (1996). Candidate in conflict: Persuasive attack and defense in the 1992 presidential debates. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.

Benton, C. & Pokorny, G. (1979). The presidential forums. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 68-82). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Ben-Porath, E. N. (2007). Question bias and violations of comparability in intraparty debates: Iowa and New Hampshire, 2004. Communication Quarterly, 55, 375-396.

Ben-Porath, E. N. (2005). Framing the candidates: The role of questions in political debates. Paper presented at the annual Conference of the International Communication Association, New York, NY.

Ben-Seev, S., & White, L. (1962). Effects and implications. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 331-337). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Beom, K., Carlin, D. B., & Silver, M. D. (2005). The world was watching--and talking: International perspectives on the 2004 presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 49, 243-264.

Berlin, L. N., & Prieto-Mendoza, A. (2014). Evidential embellishment in political debates during US campaigns.  Intercultural Pragmatics, 11, 389-409.

Berquist, G. (1994). The 1976 Carter-Ford presidential debates. In R. V. Friedenberg (Ed.), Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1992 (2nd Ed.) (pp. 29-44). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Berquist, G. F. (1960, September). The Kennedy-Humphrey debate: To talk sense or to talk politics. Today's Speech, 8, 2-3, 31.

Berquist, G. F., & Golden, J. (1981). Media rhetoric and the public perception of the 1980 presidential debates. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 67, 125-137.

Best, S. J., & Hubbard, C. (1999). Maximizing "minimal effects": the impact of early primary season debates on voter preference. American Politics Quarterly, 27, 450-467.

Best, S. J., & Hubbard, C. (2000). The role of televised debates in the presidential nominating process. In W. G. Mayer (Ed.), In pursuit of the White House 2000: How we choose our presidential nominees (pp. 255-284). New York: Chatham House.

Bilmes, J. (2001). Tactics and styles in the 1992 vice presidential debate: Question placement. Research on Language and social interaction, 34, 151-181.

Bilmes, J. (1999). Questions, answers, and the organization of talk in the 1992 vice presidential debate: Fundamental considerations. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 32, 213-242.

Birdsell, D. (1994). What should debates be? Standards of public discourse. In A. H. Miller & B. E. Gronbeck (Eds.), Presidential campaigning and America's self images (pp. 128-142). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Birdsell, D. S. (1991). Special issue: Presidential debating beyond the debate analogy. Argumentation and Advocacy: Journal of the American Forensic Association, 27, 97-99.

Bishop, G., Meadow, R. G., & Jackson-Beeck, M. (Eds.) (1980). The Presidential Debates. New York, NY: Praeger.

Bishop, G. F., Oldendick, R., & Tuchfarber, A. (1978). The presidential debates as a device for increasing the "rationality" of electoral behavior. In G. F. Bishop, R. Meadow, and M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 179-196). New York: Praeger.

Bishop, G. F., Oldendick, R., & Tuchfarber, A. (1978). Debate watching and the acquisition of political knowledge. Journal of Communication, 28, 99-113.

Bitzer, L., & Rueter, T. (1980). Carter vs Ford: The counterfeit debates of 1976. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.

Blankenship, J., Fine, M. G., & Davis, L. K. (1983). The 1980 Republican primary debates: The transformation of actor to scene. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 69, 25-36.

Blankenship, J., & Kang, J. G. (1987, May). The 1984 presidential and vice presidential debates: The printed press and "construction" by metaphor. Paper presented at meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Canada.

Blankenship, J. (1990). Naming and name calling as acts of definition: Political Campaigns and the 1988 presidential debates. In R. Trapp & J. Schuetz (Eds.), Perspectives on argumentation: Essays in honor of Wayne Brockriede (pp. 162-174). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

Blais, A., & Perrella A. M. L. (2008). Systemic effects of televised candidates' debates. International Journal of Press/Politics, 13, 451-464.

Blume, K. (1985). The presidential election show: Campaign '84 and beyond on the nightly news. South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey. [Chap. 4--Campaign on the nightly news: The debates, pp. 392-406.]

Beom, K., Carlin, D. B., & Silver, M. D. (2005). The world was watching—and talking: International perspectives on the 2004 presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 49, 243 - 264.

Borchers, T., & Miller, J. L. (2014). Bain & political capital in the 2012 GOP primary debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 58, 574-590.

Bostdorff, D. M. (2009). Judgment, experience, and leadership: Candidate debates on the Iraq War I the 2008 presidential primaries. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 12, 223-277.

Bothwell, R. K., & Bringham, J. C. (1983). Selective evaluation and recall during the 1980 Reagan-Carter debate. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 13, 427-442.

Bowes, J. E. & Strentz, H. (1978). Candidate images: Stereotyping and the 1976 debates. In B. D. Ruben (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 2 (pp. 392-406). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

Boydstun, A. E., Glazier, R. A., & Pietryka, M.T. (2013). Playing to the crowd: Agenda control in Presidential Debates. Political Communication, 30, 254-277.

Brydon, S. R. (1985). The two faces of Jimmy Carter: The transformation of a presidential debater, 1976 and 1980. Central States Speech Journal, 36, 138-151.

Brydon, S. R. (1989, November). Spinners on patrol: Network coverage in the aftermath of presidential and vice presidential debates. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association. San Francisco, CA.

Bryski, B. G. (1978). An analysis of evidence from first Ford-Carter debate. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 6, 19-30.

Bush, Clinton, Perot meet in second and third debate (1992, Oct.22). Facts on File, 52, 787-789.

Caddell, P. H. (1981). Memorandum II: Debate Strategy, Oct. 21, 1980. In E. Drew. Portrait of an election: The 1980 presidential campaign (pp. 410-439). New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Cantrell, W. R. (1977). The impact of the 1976 presidential debate on a student population. Unpublished manuscript, Illinois State University, Normal, IL.

Cantrell, W., Colella, M., & Monroe, A. (1976, November). The great debates of 1976: A quasi-experimental analysis of audience effects. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago.

Carlin, D. B. (2005). DebateWatch: Creating a public sphere for the unheard voices. In M. S. McKinney, L. L. Kaid, Bystrom, D. G., & Carlin, D. B. (Eds.), Communicating politics: Engaging the public in democratic life (pp. 223-234). New York: Peter Lang.

Carlin, D. B. (2000). Watching the debates: A guide for viewers. In S. Coleman (Ed.), Televised election debates: International perspectives (pp. 157-177). New York: St. Martin's Press.

Carlin, D. P. (1999).Constructing the 1996 debates: Determining the settings, formats, and participants. In L. L. Kaid and Bystrom, D. G. (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 133-148). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Carlin, D. P. (1994). Implications for future debate. In D. P. Carlin & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 205-215). New York: Praeger.

Carlin, D. P. (1994). A rationale for a focus group study. In D. P. Carlin & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 3-19). New York: Praeger.

Carlin, D. P. (1992). Presidential debates as focal points for campaign arguments. Political Communication, 9, 251-265.

Carlin, D. P. (1989). A defense of the "debate" in presidential debates. Argumentation and Advocacy: JAFA, 25, 208-213.

Carlin, D. P. (2003). Across the ages: Views of the 2000 debates from college freshmen to senior citizens. In L. L Kaid, J. C. Tedesco, D. G. Bystrom, & M. S. McKinney (Eds.) The millennium election: Communication in the 2000 campaign (pp. 229-241). New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

Carlin, D. P., & Bicak, P. J. (1993). Toward a theory of vice presidential debate purposes: An analysis of the 1992 vice presidential debate. Argumentation and Advocacy: Journal of the American Forensics Association, 30, 119-130.

Carlin, D. P., Howard, C., Stanfield, S, & Reynolds, L. (1991) The effects of presidential debate formats on clash: A comparative analysis. Argumentation and Advocacy: Journal of the American Forensic Association, 27, 126-136.

Carlin, D. P., & McKinney, M. S. (Eds) (1994). The 1992 presidential debates in focus. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Carlin, D. P., Morris, E., & Smith, S. (2001). The influence of format and questions on candidates' argument choices in the 2000 presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 2196-2218.

Carlin, D. B., Schill, D. Levasseur, D. G., & King, A. S. (2005). The post -9/11 public sphere: Citizen talk about the 2004 presidential debates. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 8, 617-638.

Carter, R. F., & Stamm, K. R. (1994). The 1992 presidential campaign and debates: A cognitive view. Communication Research, 21, 380-395.

Carter, R. (1978). A very peculiar horse race. In G. Bishop, R. Meadow, & M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.). The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp.3-17). New York: Praeger.

Carter, R. (1962). Some effects of the debates. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates (pp. 253-270). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Cater, D. (1962). Notes from backstage. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 127-131). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Cienki, A. J. (2004). Bush’s and Gore’s language and gestures in the 2000 US presidential debates: A test case for two models of metaphors. Journal of Language & Politics, 3, 409-440.

Chaffee, S. H. (1978). Presidential debates - are they helpful to voters? Communication Monographs, 45, 330-346.

Chaffee, S. H. (1979). Approaches of U.S. Scholars to the study of televised political debates. Political Communication Review, 4, 119-33.

Chaffee, S., & Choe, S. (1980). Time of decision and media use during the Ford-Carter campaign. Public Opinion Quarterly, 44, 53-69.

Chaffee, S., & Dennis, J. (1979). Presidential debates: An empirical assessment. In A. Ranney (Ed.), The past and future of presidential debates (pp. 75-106). Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute

Chemerinsky, E. (1984). Changing the rules of the game: The new FCC regulations on political debates. Comm/Ent, 7, 1-18.

Cheney, R. (1979). The 1976 presidential debates: A republican perspective. In A. Ranney (Ed.) The past and future of presidential debates (pp. 107-136). Washington, D. C.: American Enterprise Institute.

Cho, J., & Ha, Y. (2012). On the communicative underpinnings of campaign effects: Presidential debates, citizen communication, and polarization in evaluations of candidates. Political Communication, 29, 184-204.

Cho, J., Shah, D. V., Nah, S., & Brossard, D. (2009). "Split Sceens" and "Spin Rooms": Debate modality, post-debate coverage, and the new vidomalaise. Journal of Broadcasting & electronic Media, 53, 242-261.

Clayman, S. E. (1995). Defining moments, presidential debates, and the dynamics of quotability. Journal of Communication, 45, 118-157.

Clayman, S. E. (1992). Caveat orator: Audience disaffiliation in the 1988 presidential debates. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 78, 33-60. (Audience responses to WFU Debate)

Clevenger, T., Parson, D., & Polisky, J. (1962). The problem of textual accuracy. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 341-347). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Cohen, R. (1979). The public agenda foundation: An experiment in issues analysis. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 54-67). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Coleman, S. (Ed.) (2000), Televised election debates: International perspectives. New York: St. Martin's Press.

Coleman, S. (2000). Meaningful political debates in the age of the soundbite. In S. Coleman (Ed.), Televised election debates: International perspectives (pp. 1-24). New York: St. Martin's Press.

Commission on Presidential Debates (1993). Review of the 1992 presidential debates. Washington, DC.: Freedom Forum. [transcript of proceedings]

Condit, C. M. (1989). Feminized power and adversarial advocacy: Leveling arguments or analyzing them? Argumentation and Advocacy: JAFA, 25, 226-230.

Conrad, C. (1993). Political debates as televisual form. Argumentation and Advocacy: Journal of the American Forensics Association, 30, 62-76. [Hunt/Helms]

Corrado, A. (Ed.) (1995). Let American decide: The Report of the Twentieth Century Fund Task Forces on presidential debates. Twentieth Century Fund.

Cos, G. C., & Castaneda Rossmann, L. (1997). Articulating civic virtue in the second 1996 presidential debate. American Behavioral Scientist, 40. 1023-1132.

Cragen, J., & Cutbirth, C. (1983, April). Contemporary political "ad hominen": The Thompson-Stevenson gubernatorial debates, 1982. Paper presented at the Central States Speech Association Convention, Lincoln, NE.

Crawford, C. B. (1999). Analysis of humor in the 1992 presidential debates. Perception and Motor Skills, 88, 417-420.

Dailey, W. O., Hinck, E. A., & Hinck. S. S. (2007). Politeness in presidental debates: Shaping political face in campaign debaters from 1960 to 2004. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Dailey, W. O., Hinck, E. A., & Hinck. S. S. (2005). Audience perceptions of politeness and advocacy skills in the 2000 and 2004 presidential debates. Argumentation and Advocacy, 41, 196-210.

Dauber, C. (1989). Debate as empowerment. Argumentation and Advocacy, JAFA, 25, 205-207.

Davis, D. K. (1979). Influence on vote decision. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 331-347). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Davis, D., & Kraus, S. (1982). Public communication and televised presidential debates. In M. Burgoon (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 6 (pp. 289-303). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Davis, L. K. (1978). Camera-eye contact by the candidates in the presidential debates of 1976. Journalism Quarterly, 55, 431-437, 455.

Davis, M. H. (1982). Voting intentions and the 1980 Carter-Reagan debate. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 12, 481-492.

Davis, J. W. (1997). Primary debates. U. S. presidential primaries and the caucus-convention system: A sourcebook (146-156)., Westport, CT: Praeger.

Deatherage, S. (1990, November). The uncertain role of debates in presidential primaries. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association. Chicago, IL.

Debate Score: Kennedy up, Nixon down (1960, Nov. 7). Broadcasting, 27-28.

deBock, H. (1978). The influence of the Ford-Carter debates on the Dutch television audience. Journalism Quarterly, 55, 583-585.

Depoe, S. P., and Short-Thompson, C. (1994). Let the people speak: The emergence of public space in the Richmond presidential debate. In D. B. Carlin & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992: Presidential debates in focus (pp. 85-98). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Decker, W. D. (1992). The 1988 Quayle-Bentsen vice presidential debate. In R. V. Friedenberg (Ed.), Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1992 (2nd ed.) (pp. 167-185). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Delli Carpini, M. X., Holsworth, R. D., Keeter, S., & Thalhimer, M. (1993). "Consumer journalism" in the electronic age: Instant reaction to the "people's" presidential debate, Media Studies Journal, , 47-.

Democratic Party presidential candidates participate in Brown and Black presidential Debate. Federal Document Clearing House, Political Transcripts, 102101607918. (Des Moines, IA, Jan. 17, 2000) Bradley/Gore.

Dennis, J., Chaffee, S., & Choe, S. (1979). Impact upon partisan: Image and issue voting. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 314-330). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

De Silva, I., & Herbeck, D. (1998). Journalists, moderators and citizens: A quantitative assessment of questions asked in presidential debates. In J. F. Klumpp (Ed.), Argument in a time of change: Definitions, frameworks, and critiques (pp. 232-237). Annandale, VA: National Communication Association.

Desmond, R. & Donohue, T. (1981). The role of the 1976 televised presidential debates in the political socialization of adolescents. Communication Quarterly, 29, 302-308.

Desutschmann, P. (1962). Viewing, conversation, and voting intentions. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 232-252). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Diamond, E., & Friery, K. (1987). Media coverage of presidential debates. In J. L. Swerdlow (Ed.) Presidential debates 1988 and beyond (pp. 43-51). Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly

Dinock, A. (2015). The structure of the pivot: Distrubing arguments through stargegic questions avoidance in presidential debate. In C. H. Palczewski, Ed., Disturbing argument (pp. 161-167). Routledge, New York. .

Doerfel, M. L., & Marsh, P. S. (2003). Candidate-issue positioning in the context of presidential debates. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 31, 212-237.

Doerfel, M. L., & Connaughton, S. L. (2005). The semantic structure of competition: Election year winners and losers in U.S. televised presidential debates, 1960-2004. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the International Communication Association, New York, NY.

Drew, D., & Weaver, D. (1991). Voter learning in the 1988 presidential election: Did the debates and the media matter. Journalism Quarterly, 68, 27-38.

Druckman, J. N. (2003). The power of television images: The first Kennedy-Nixon debate revisited. Journal of Politics, 65, 559-571.

Drucker, S. J. (1990, November). The impact of mediation on argumentation in presidential debates. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Chicago, IL.

Drucker, S. J. (1989, November). Televised presidential debates: A new tradition. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Francisco.

Drucker, S. J., & Hunhold, J. P. (1987). The debating game. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 4, 202-207.

Edelsky, C., & Adams, K. (1990). Creating enequality: Breaking the rules in debates. Journal of Langauge and Social Psychlology, 9, 171-190.

Janis L. Edwards, J. L. (2012). Visual literacy and visual politics: Photojournalism and the 2004 presidential debates. Communication Quarterly, 60, 681-697.

Eisner, K. D. (1993). Non-major-party candidates and televised presidential debates: The merits of legislative inclusion. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 141, 973-.

Elliot, W. R., & Sothirajah, J. (1993). Post-debate analysis and media reliance: Influences on candidate image and voting probabilities. Journalism Quarterly, 70, 321-335.

Elliott, W. R., Sothirajah, J., Lemert, J. B., Nestvold, K. J., & Rosenberg, J. M. (1991, May). 1988's first presidential candidate debate: the debate, post-debate analysis, media reliance and the public's response to the candidates. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Communication Association. Chicago, IL.

Ellsworth, J. T. (1965). Rationality and campaigning: A content analysis of the 1960 presidential campaign debates. Western Political Quarterly, 18, 794-802.

Eveland, W. P., McLeod, D. M., & Nathanson, A. I. (1994). Reporters vs. undecided voters: An analysis of the questions asked during the 1992 presidential debates. Communication Quarterly, 42, 390-406.

Faas, T. & Maier, J. (2004). Chancellor-candidates in the 2002 televised debates. German Politics, 13, 300-316.Fairlie, H. (1988, October 10). Brief whining moments. New Republic, 21-23.

Farah, G. (2004). No debate: How the republican and democratic parties secretly control the presidential debates. New York: Seven Stories Press.

Faucheux, R. A. (2002). What voters think about political debates: Key findings from a nationwide voter poll. Campaign and Elections, 23, 22-24, 26, 44.

Faucheux, R. (1996, Oct/Nov). Debate watcher's guide. Campaign & Elections, 280-32.

Fazio. R. H., & Williams, C. J. (1986). Attitude accessibility as a moderator of the attitude-perception and attitude behavior relations: An investigation of the 1984 presidential election. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 505-514.

Fein, S., Goethals, G. R., & Kugler, M. B. (2007), Social influence on political judgments: The case of presidential debates. Political Psychology 28, 165–192.

Feldman, L. & Price, V. (2008). Confusion or enlightenment? How exposure to disagreement Moderates the effects of political discussion and media use on candidate knowledge. Communication Research, 35, 61-87.

Firestone, C. M. (1987). Legal issues surrounding televised presidential debates. In J. L. Swerdlow (Ed.), Presidential debates 1988 and beyond (pp. 17-26). Washington, D. C.: Congressional Quarterly.

Fish, D. R. (1989). Image and issue in the second Bush-Dukakis debate: The mediating role of values. In B. E. Gronbeck (Ed.), Spheres of argument: Proceedings of the sixth SCA/AFA Conference on Argumentation (pp. 151-157). Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.

Fish, M. (1989, May). Deconstructing the 1988 presidential debates. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, San Francisco, CA.

Fisher, W. R. (1980, May). Soap box derby: Political debates offer candidates the platform they want. USC Chronicle, 3.

Frana, A. W. (1989). Characteristics of effective argumentation. Argumentation and Advocacy: JAFA, 25, 200-202.

Fouhy, E. M. (2005). Presidential debates help voters find the information they need, when they need it. In M. S. McKinney, L. L. Kaid, Bystrom, D. G., & Carlin, D. B. (Eds.), Communicating politics: Engaging the public in democratic life (pp. 241-245). New York: Peter Lang.

Fouhy, E. M. (1992). The debates: A winning miniseries. Washington Journalism Review, 27-29.

Fredin, E. S., Kosicki, G. M., & Becker, L. B. (1996). Cognitive strategies for media use during a presidential campaign. Political Communication, 13, 23-42.

Freelon, D., & Karpf, D. (2015). Of big birds and bayonets: Hybrid Twitter interactivity in the 2012 Presidential debates. Communication & Society, 18, 390-406.

Fridkin, K. L., Kenney, P. J, Gershon, S. A., Serignese, G. & Woodall, G. (2008). Spinning debates: The impact of the news media's coverage of the final 2004 Presidential debate. International Journal of Press/Politics, 13, 29–51.

Fridkin, K. L., Kenney, P. J., Gershon, S. A., Shafer, K., & Woodall G. S. (2007). Capturing the power of a campaign event: The 2004 presidential debate in Tempe. Journal of Politics, 69, 770–785.

Friendenberg, R. V. (2005). The 2004 presidential debates. In R. E. Denton (Ed.), The 2004 presidential campaign: A communication perspective (pp. 93-129). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pub.

Friendenberg, R. V. (2002). The 2000 presidential debates. In R. E. Denton. The 2000 presidential campaign: A communication perspective (pp. 135-166). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Friendenberg, R. V. (1998). The 1996 presidential debates. In R. E. Denton (Ed.) The 1996 presidential campaign: A communication perspective (pp. 101-121). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Friendenberg, R. V. (1997). Patterns and Trends in national political debates: 1960-1996. In R. V. Friendenberg (ed.). Rhetorical studies of national political debates - 1996 (pp. 61-90). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Friendenberg, R. V. (Ed.) (1997). Rhetorical studies on national political debates-1996. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Friedenberg, R. V. (1994). The 1992 presidential debates. In R. E. Denton (Ed.), The 1992 presidential campaign: A communication perspective (pp. 89-110). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Friedenberg, R. V. (Ed.) (1990). Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1992 (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Friedenberg, R. V. (1994). Patterns and trends in national political debates: 1960-1988. In R. V. Friedenberg (Ed.), Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1992. (pp. 191-299). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Friedenberg, R. V. (Ed.) (1990). Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1988. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Friedenberg, R. V. (1981). "Selfish interests," or the prerequisites for political debate: An analysis of the 1980 presidential debate and its implications for future campaigns. Journal of the American Forensics Association, 18, 91-98.

Friedenberg, R. V. (1979). "We are present here today for the purpose of having a joint discussion": The conditions requisite for political debates. Journal of the American Forensic Association, 16, 1-9.

Gadziala, S., & Becker, L. (1983). A new look at agenda-setting in the 1976 election debates. Journalism Quarterly, 60, 122-125.

Galasinski, D. (1998). Strategies of talking to each other: Rule breaking in Polish presidential debates. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 17, 165-182.

Gallagher, R. (1998). Presidential debates. History of the Mass Media in the United States: An Encyclopedia. 527-528

Gallup, G., Jr. (1987). The impact of presidential debates on the vote and turnout. In J. L. Swerdlow (Ed.) Presidential debates 1988 and beyond (pp. 34-42). Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly.

Gauthier, G. (2004). The use of indirection in televised political debates: The Bush-Gore debates during the 2000 American presidential campaign. Journal of Political Marketing, 3, 69-86.

Greene, R. J., (1965, April). The Kennedy-Keating “Debate”, Today's Speech, 13, 12-12, 42.

Geer, J. (1988). The effects of presidential debates on the electoral preferences for candidates. American Politics Quarterly, 16, 486-501.

Gelders, D. (2000). The televised political debate, a gladiatorial contest in miniature: Relational control between debating politicians. Communication, 29, 3-18.

Germond, J. W., & Witcover, J. (1979). Presidential debates: An overview. In A. Ranney (Ed.), The past and future of presidential debates (pp. 191-201). Washington, D. C.: American Enterprise Institute.

Gidengil. E., & Everitt, J. (1999). Metaphors and misrepresentation: Gendered mediation in news coverage of the 1993 Canadian leaders' debates. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 4, 48-65.

Gilbert, R. E. (1982). Television debates and presidential elections: The United States and France. Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, 7, 411-429.

Gill, M. (1986). Presidential debates: Political tool or voter information? Speaker and Gavel, 24, 36-40.

Glantz, M., Benoit, W. L., & Airne, D. (2013). A functional analysis of 2012 presidential primary debates. Argumentation & Advocacy, 49, 275-285.

Golden, J. L., & Smith, L. D. (1985). The Dartmouth College debate: Mediated political realities in presidential politics. Paper presented at the Speech Communication Association Convention, Denver, CO.

Gordon, A., & Miller, J. L. (2004). Values and persuasion during the first Bush-Gore Presidential debate. Political Communication, 21, 71-92.

Gottfried, J. A., Hardy, B. W. Winneg K. M., & Jamieson, K. H. (2014). All knowledge is not created equal: Knowledge effects and the 2012 presidential debates. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 44, 389–409.

Gottschalk, L. A., Uliana, R., & Gilbert, R. (1988). Presidential candidates and cognitive impairment measured from behavior in campaign debates. Public Administration Review, 48, 613-619.

Graber, D. (1978). Problems of measuring audience effects in the 1976 debates. In R. Meadow, M. Jackson-Beeck, & G. Bishop (Eds.). The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 105-125). New York: Praeger.

Graber, D. A., & Kim, Y. Y. (1978). Why John Q. Voter did not learn much from the 1976 presidential debates. In B. D. Ruben (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 2 (pp. 407-421). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

Greenfield, J. (1984, Sept.). How to tell who's winning those presidential debates. TV Guide, 22, 6-8.

Gregory, S, Green, B., Carothers, R., Dagan, K., & Webster, S. (2001). Spectral analysis of candidates' nonverbal vocal communication: Predicting U.S. presidential election outcome. Social Psychology Quarterly, 65, 298-315.

Gruner, C. R. (1997). A rejoinder to Levasseur and Dean on the ‘the Dole humor myth’. Southern Journal of Communication, 62, 153-157.

Guelzo, A. C (2010). The little men behind the curtain: The committees, connectors, and carpenters who made the Lincoln-Douglas Debates happen. Argumentation & Advocacy, 46, 130-139.

Gustainis, J. J. (1988, November). There he goes again: Ronald Reagan's use of humor in debates against Carter and Mondale. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association. New Orleans, LA.

Hagner, P., & Rieselbach, L. (1978). The impact of the 1970 presidential debates: Conversion or reinforcement? In R. Meadow, M. Jackson-Beeck, & G. Bishop (Eds.). The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 157-178). New York: Praeger.

Hahn, D. F. (1994). The 1992 Clinton-Bush-Perot presidential debate. In R. V. Friendenberg (Ed.) Rhetorical studies of National political debates, 1960-1992, 2nd ed. (pp. 187-210). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Hall, J. (2000). Mission to engage. In S. Coleman (Ed.), Televised election debates: International perspectives (pp. 178-202). New York: St. Martin's Press.

Hansen, G. J., & Benoit, W. L. (2002). Presidential television advertising and the public agenda, 1952-2000. Communication Studies, ,

Hansen, G. J., & Benoit, W. L. (2001). The role of significant policy issues in the 2000 presidential primaries. American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 2082-2100.

Hardy-Short, D. (1986). An insider's view of the constraints affecting Geraldine Ferraro's preparation for the 1984 presidential debates. Speaker and Gavel, 24, 8-22.

Hart, R. P., & Jarvis, S. E. (1997). Political debate: Forms, styles, and media. American Behavioral Scientist, 40. 1095-1122.

Hawkins, R., Pingree, S., Smith, K., & Bechtolt, W., Jr. (1976). Adolescents' responses to the issues and images of the debates. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 368-383). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Hellweg, S. A. (1984, November). The relationship of imposed format structures and emergent candidate verbal behaviors: A comparison of the 1984 primary and general election debates. Paper presented at the Speech Communication Association Convention, Chicago, IL.

Hellweg, S., & Phillips, S. (1981). A verbal and visual analysis of the 1980 Houston republican presidential primary debate. Southern Speech Communication Journal, 47, 23-38.

Hellweg, S., & Phillips, S. (1981). Form and substance: A comparative analysis of five formats used in the 1980 presidential debates. Speaker and Gavel, 18, 67-76.

Hellweg, S. A., Pfau, M., & Brydon, S. R. (1992). Televised presidential debates: Advocacy in contemporary America. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Hellweg, S. A., & Stevens, M. D. (1990, November). Argumentative strategies ion the vice-presidential debates: 1996, 1984, and 1988. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Chicago.

Hellweg, S. A., & Verhoye, A. M. (1989, November). A comparative verbal analysis of the two 1988 Bush-Dukakis presidential debates. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Francisco, CA.

Herbeck, D. A. (2002). Punchless Debating. The Boston College Chronicle, 11, .

Herbeck, D. A. (1994). Presidential debate as political ritual: Clinton vs. Bush vs. Perot. In S. A. Smith (Ed.), Bill Clinton on stump, state, and stage: The Rhetorical road to the White House (pp. 249-272). Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press.

Herbeck, D. & Mehltretter, S. (2005). “A Beard and a Pasty Forehead”: Collective memory of the first Kennedy-Nixon debate". Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the International Communication Association, ; New York, NY.

Hickman, R. H. (1984/85). Presidential election debates: Do they matter? Election Politics, 2, 10-14.

Hicks, D., & Greene, R. W. (2015).  Managed convictions: Debate and the limits of electoral politics. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 101, 98-112.

Hiland, A. (2015). Polysemic argument: Mitt Romney in the 2012 primary debates. In C. H. Palczewski, Ed., Disturbing argument (pp. 168-173.). Routledge, New York.

Hillier, P. M. (2015). Rethinking media and technology: What the Kennedy-Nixon Debate myth can really teach us.  Online Journal of Communication & Media Technologies, 5, 143-156.

Hillygus, D. S., & Jackman, S. (2003). Voter decision making in election 2000: Campaign effects, partisan activation, and the Clinton legacy. American Journal of Political Science. 47, 583-.

Hinck, E. A. (1993). Enacting the presidency: Political argument, presidential debates, and presidential character. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Hinck, E. A. (1988, November). Enacting the presidency: Political debates as dramatic enactment of presidential character. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association. New Orleans, LA.

Hinck, E. A. (1989, November). Dramatic enactment of presidential character in presidential debates of 1988. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association. San Francisco, CA.

Hinck, E. A., & Hinck, S. S. (2002). Politeness strategies in the 1992 vice presidential and presidential debates. The Journal of the American Forensic Association: Argumentation and Advocacy, 38, 234-250.

Hinck, E. A., & Hinck, S. S. (1995, April). Perot versus Gore: Politeness strategies in the NAFTA debate. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Central States Communication Association. Indianapolis, IN.

Hinck, E.A., Hinck, S. S., & Dailey, W. O. (2012). Poliitness in the 201 presidential debates: Some preliminary finding from Iowa debates. Spectra, 48, 20-23.

Hinck, S. S., Hinck, R. S., Dailey, W. O., & Hinck, E. A. (2013). Thous Shalt not speak ill of any fellow republican? Potitness theory in the 2012 Republican primary Debates. Argumentation and Adovacy, 49, 259-274.

Hinck, E.A., Hinck, S. S., & Dailey, W. O. (2007). Politeness and political debate. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishing.

Hodgkinson, G., & Leland, C. M. (1999). Metaphors in the 1996 presidential debates: An analysis of themes. In L. L. Kaid and Bystrom, D. G. (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 149-161). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hogan, J. M. (1989). Media nihilism and the presidential debates. Argumentation and Advocacy: JAFA, 25, 220-225.

Holbert, R. L. (2005). Debate viewing as mediator and partisan reinforcement in the relationship between news use and vote choice. Journal of Communication, 55, 85-102.

Holbert, R. L., Benoit, W. L., Hansen, G. J., & Wen, W. (2002). The role of political ad recall, news use, political discussion, and debate viewing in campaign issue knowledge and salience. Communication Monographs, 69. 296-310.

Holbert, R. L. Benoit, W. L., & McKinney, M. S. (2002).The role of debate viewing in establishing "enlightened preference" in the 2000 presidential election. Seoul, Korea: ICA.

Holbert, R. L., Hansen, G. J., Caplan, S. E., & Mortensen, S. (2007). Presidential debate viewing and Michael Moore's Fahrenheit 9-11: A study of affect-as-transfer and passionate reasoning. Media Psychology, 9, 673-694.

Holbert, R. L., LaMarre, H. L., & Landreville, K. D. (2009). Fanning the flames of a partisan divide: Debate viewing, vote choice, and perceptions of vote count accuracy. review. Communication Research, 36, 155-177.

Holbrook, T. M. (1999). Political learnings from presidential debates. Political Behavior, 21, 67-89.

Holbrook, T. M. (1997). The effects of electoral debates on public 0pinion and voting behavior, Revista Romana de Sociologie, 8, 407-410.

Holbrook, T. M. (1996). Do campaigns matter? Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (see chap. 5 "The effect of debates").

Holbrook, T. M. (1994). The behavioral consequences of vice-presidential debates: Does the undercard have any punch? American Politics Quarterly, 22, 469-482.

Houston, J. B., McKinney, M, S., Hawthorne, J., & oshua; Spialek, M. L. (2013). Frequency of tweeting during presidential debates: Effect on debate attitudes and knowledge. Communication Studies, 64, 548-560.

Hull, E. B. (2004). Independent candidates' battle against the exclusionary practices of the Commission on Presidential Debates. Iowa Law Review, 90, 313-345.

Hullett, C. R., Louden, A. D., & Mitra, A. (2003). Emotion and political cognition: A test of bipolar, two-dimensional, and discrete models of emotion in predicting involvement and learning. Communication Monograph, 70, 250-263.

Hwang, H., Kim, Y., & Huh, C (2014). Seeing is believing: Effects of uncivil online debate on political polarization and expectations of deliberation.  Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 58, 621-633.

Hwang, H., Gotlieb, M. R., & Nah, S., & McLeod, D. M. (2007). Applying a cognitive-processing model to presidential debate effects: Postdebate news analysis and primed reflection. Journal of Communication; 57, 40-59.

Isotalus, P. (2011). Analyzing presidential debates: Functional theory and Finnish political communication culture. NORDICOM Review, 32, 31-43.

Jackson, B. & Jamieson, K. H. (2004). Finding fact in political debate. American Behavioral Scientist, 48, 229-237.

Jackson-Beeck, M., & Meadow, R. G. (1979). Content analysis of televised communication events: The presidential debates. Communication Research, 6, 321-344.

Jackson-Beeck, M., & Meadow, R. (1979). The triple agenda of presidential debates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 43, 173-180.

Jacques, W. W., & Ratzan, S. C. (1997). The Internet’s world wide web and political accountability: New media coverage of the 1996 presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 40, 1226-1237.

Jacques, W., Meilinger, F., Balmoris, M., Gernes, C., & Denby, S. (1993). Some aspects of major newspaper coverage of the 1992 presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 37, 252-256.

Jacoby, J., Troutman, T., & Whittler, T. (1986). Viewer miscomprehension of the 1980 presidential debate--a research note. Political Psychology, 7, 297-308.

Jamieson, K. H. (2015). The discipline's debate contributions: Then, now, and next. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 101, 85-97.

Jamieson, K. H. (1987). Television, presidential campaigns, and debates. In J. Swerdlow (Ed.) Presidential debate 1988 and beyond (pp. 27-33). Washington, D. C.: Congressional Quarterly.

Jamieson, K. H., & Adasiewicz, C. (2000). What can voters learn from election debates? In S. Coleman (Ed.), Televised election debates: International perspectives (pp. 25-42). New York: St. Martin's Press.

Jamieson, K., & Birdsell, .. (1988). Presidential debates: The challenge of creating an informed electorate. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jarman, J. W. (2005). Political affiliation and presidential debates: A real-time analysis of the effect of the arguments used in the presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 49.229-242.

Jeffres, L, & Hur, K. (1979). Impact of ethnic issues on ethnic voters. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debate: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 437-445). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Johnson, D. I. (2005). Feminine style in presidential debate discourse, 1960-2000. Communication Quarterly, 53, 3-.

Jorgensen, C, Kock, C., & Rorbech, L. (1998). Rhetoric that shifts votes: An exploratory study of persuasion in issue-oriented public debates. Political Communication, 15, 283-299. [Denmark]

Kahn, K. F. (1992). Does being male help? An investigation of the effects of candidate gender and campaign coverage on evaluations of US senate candidates. Journal of politics, 54, 497-517.

Kahn, K. F. (1994). The distorted mirror: Press coverage of women candidates for statewide office. Journal of Politics, 56, 154-173.

Kahn, K. F., & Goldenberg, E. N (1991). Women candidates in the news: An examination of gender differences in US senate campaign coverage. Public Opinion Quarterly, 55, 180-199.

Kaid, L. L. (2003). Effects of political information in the 2000 presidential campaign: Comparing traditional television and internet exposure. American Behavioral scientist, 46, 677-691.

Kaid, L. L., McKinney, M., & Tedesco, J. C. (2000). Civic Dialogue in the 1996 presidential campaign. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc. [Chapter 4: "Debate messages" pp. 67-87; Chapter 7: "News coverage of the debates" pp. 135-149]

Kane, T. (1987). The Dewey-Stassen primary debate of 1948: An examination of format for presidential debates. In J. Wenzel (Ed.), Argument and critical practice (pp. 249-253). Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.

Khang, H. (2008). A cross-cultural perspective on videostyles of presidential debates in the US and Korea. Asian Journal of Communication, 18, 47-63.

Karayn, J. (1979). Presidential debates: A plan for the future. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 209-219). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Karayn, J. (1992). The challenge of presidential debates. Television Quarterly, 25, 103-110.

Katz, E., & Feldman, J. J. (1962). The debates in the light of research : A survey of surveys. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Kennedy vs. Nixon, 1960 (pp. 173-223). Bloomington, Indiana University Press.

Kay, J., & Borchers, T. A. (1994). "Children in a sandbox": Reaction to the vice presidential debate. In D. B. Carlin & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 99-108). New York: Praeger.

Kelley, S. (1962). Campaign debates: Some facts and issues. Public Opinion Quarterly, 26, 351-366.

Kendall, K. E. (1997). The 1996 Clinton-Dole presidential debate: Through media eyes. In R. V. Friendenberg (ed.). Rhetorical studies of national political debates - 1996 (pp. 1-29). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Kendall, K. (1997). Presidential debate through media eyes. American Behavioral Scientist, 40. 1193-1207.

Kennamer, J. D. (1987). Debate viewing and debate discussion as predictors of campaign cognition. Journalism Quarterly, 64, 114-119.

Kenski, K. & Jamieson, K. H. (2011). Presidential and Vice Presidential debates in 2008: A profile of audience composition. American Behavioral Scientist, 55, 307-324.

Kenski, K., & Stroud, N. J. (2005). Who watches presidential debates? A comparative analysis of presidential debate viewing in 2000 and 2004. American Behavioral Scientist, 49, 213-228.

Kephart, J. M. (2006). Argumentation and democracy: Towards a model of deliberative debate. In P. Riley (Ed.) Engaging Argument (pp. 380-385) . Washington, DC: National Communication Association. [2004 LA Dem Pres Primary Debate]

Khisu, B., Carlin, D. B., & Silver, M. D. (2005). The world was watching--And talking: International perspectives on the 2004 presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 49, 243-264.

Kirkpatrick, E. M. (1979). Presidential candidate debates: What can we learn from 1960? In A. Ranney (Ed.), The past and future of presidential debates (pp. 1-55). Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute.

Klumpp, J. F. (1989). W[h]ither civic discourse[?]! In B. E. Gronbeck (Ed.), Spheres of argument: Proceedings of the sixth SCA/AFA Conference on Argumentation (pp. 147-150). Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.

Kraus, S. (2000). Televised presidential debates and public policy (2^nd Ed). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kraus, S. (1996). Winners of the first 1960 televised presidential debate between Kennedy and Nixon. Journal of Communication, 46, 78-96.

Kraus, S. (1987). Voters win. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 4, 214-216.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Kraus, S. (Ed.). (1979). The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. [Note: Kraus' books include several research articles on debates]

Kraus, S. (1979). Presidential debates: Political option or public decree? In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debaters: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp.3-10). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Kraus, S. (1979). Candidate briefings. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 105-108). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Kraus, S. (1964). Presidential debates in 1964. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 50, 19-23.Kraus, S. (Ed.). (1962). The great debates. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Kraus, S., & Davis, D. (1981). Political debates. In D. Nimmo & K. R. Sanders (Eds.), Handbook of political communication (pp. 273-296). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Kraus, S., & Davis, D. (1982). Political debates: The negotiated format. Gamut: A Journal of Ideas and Information, 5, 102-112.

Kraus, S., & Smith, R. (1962). Images and issues. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 289-312). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Krauss, K. M., Apple, W., Morency, N., Wenzel, C., & Winton, W. (1981). Verbal, vocal, and visible factors in judgment of another's affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 312-320.

Krivonos. P. D. (1976). The first debate: Ford versus Carter-A behavioral criticism. Exetasis, 3, 3-9.

Kuhn, M. S. (1994). The presidential debate as source of citizen disagreement. In D. B. Carlin and M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 139-153). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Lamoureaux E. R., Entrekin, H. S., & McKinney, M. S. (1994). Debating the debates. In D. B. Carlin & M. S. McKinney (Eds.). The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 55-67). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Lang, G. E. (1987). Still seeking answers. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 4, 211-214.

Lang, G. E., & Lang, K. (1984). Politics and television: Re-viewed. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. [Note: Chap. 4 - Ordeal before television: The Kennedy-Nixon debates, pp. 97-121, Debate and dilemmas: Carter versus Ford, pp. 177-196.]

Lang, G. E., & Lang, K. (1979). Making the least of it? Television coverage of the audio gap. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 158-174). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Lang, G. E., & Lang, K. (1979). Immediate and mediated responses: Reaction to the first debate. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 298-313). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Lang, G. E., & Lang, K. (1978). The formation of public opinion: Direct and mediated effects of the first debate. In G. Bishop, R. Meadow, & M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 61-80). New York: Praeger.

Lang, G. E., & Lang, K. (1978). The first debate and the coverage gap. Journal of Communication, 28, 93-98.

Lang, G. E., & Lang, K. (1978). Immediate and delayed responses to a Carter-Ford debate: Assessing public opinion. Public Opinion Quarterly, 42, 322-341.

Lang, K., & Lang, G. E. (1977). Reactions of viewers. In S. Kraus (Ed.) The great debates: Carter versus Ford, 1976 (pp. 313-330). Bloomington: IN: Indiana University Press.

Lang, K., & Lang, G. E. (1961). Ordeal by debate: Viewer reactions. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25, 277-288.

Lang, K., & Lang, G. E. (1962). Reactions of viewers. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 313-330). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Lanoue, D. J. (1995). The 1992 Presidential Debates in Focus. Public Opinion Quarterly, 59, 448-450.

Lanoue, D. J. (1991). Debates that mattered: Voters' reaction to the 1984 Canadian leadership debates. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 24, 51-65.

Lanoue, D. J. (1991). The 'Turning Point': Viewers' reactions to the second 1988 presidential debate. American Politics Quarterly, 19, 80-95.

Lanoue, D. J. (1992). One that made a difference: Cognitive consistency, political knowledge, and the 1980 presidential debate. Public Opinion Quarterly, 56, 168-184.

Lanoue, D. J., & Schrott, P. R. (1991). The joint press conference: the history, impact, and prospects of American presidential debates. New York: Greenwood.

Lanoue, D. J., & Schrott, P. R. (1989). The effects of primary season debates on public opinion. Political Behavior, 11, 289-306.

Lanoue, D. J., & Schrott, P. R. (1989). Voters' reactions to televised presidential debates: Measurement of the source and magnitude of opinion change. Political Psychology, 10, 275-285.

Lax, J. R. (1999). Fair division: A format for the debate on the format of debates. PS, Political Science & Politics, 32, 45-52.

League of Women Voters' Education Fund (1977). Effect of the debates on the 1976 campaign and election. Washington, D.C.: Author.

League of Women Voters' Education Fund (1981). The 1980 presidential debates: Behind the scenes. Washington, D. C.: Author.

Leff, M. C., & Mohrmann, G. P. (1974). Lincoln at Cooper Union: A rhetorical analysis of the text. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 60, 346-358

Lambert, J. B. (1993). Do televised presidential debates help inform voters: Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 37, 83-94.

Lemert, J. B., Elliot, W. R., Bernstein, J. M., Rosenberg, W. L., & Nestvold, K. J. (1991). News verdicts, the debates, and presidential campaigns. New York: Preager.

Lemert, J. B., Elliott, W. R., Nestvold, J. J., & Rarick, G. R. (1983). Effects of viewing a presidential debate: An Experiment. Communication Research, 10, 155-173.

Lemert, J. B., Wanta, W., & Lee T. (1999). Winning by staying ahead: 1996 debate performance verdicts. In L. L. Kaid and Bystrom, D. G. (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 179-189). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Leon, M. (1993). Revealing character and addressing voters’ needs in the 1992 presidential debates: A content analysis. Argumentation and Advocacy: Journal of the American Forensics Association, 30, 88-105.

Leon, M., & Allen, T. H. (1990). Improving political campaign reporting: The use of precision journalism in the 1988 presidential debates. Mass Communication Review, , 14-21.

Lesher, S. (with Caddell, P., & Rafshoon, G.) (1979). Did the debates help Jimmy Carter? In A. Ranney (Ed.), The past and future of presidential debates (pp. 137-154). Washington, D. C.: American Enterprise Institute.

Leuthold, D. A., & Valentine, D. C. (1981). How Reagan "won" the Cleveland debate: Audience predispositions and presidential debate "winners." Speaker and Gavel, 18, 60-66.

Levasseur, D. G., & Dean, K. W. (1997). Accounting for Dole’s humor in the 1976 vice presidential debate: A response to Gruner’s rejoinder. Southern Communication Journal, 62, 243-247.

Levasseur, D. G., & Dean, K. W. (1996). The Dole humor myth and the risks of recontextualizing rhetoric. Southern Communication Journal, 62, 56-72.

Levasseur, D., & Dean, K. W. (1996). The use of evidence in presidential debates: A study of evidence levels and types from 1960-1988. Argumentation and Advocacy, 32, 129-142.

Levi, L. (2001). Professionalism, oversight, and institution-balancing: The Supreme Court's "second best" plan for political debate on television, Yale Journal on Regulation, 18, 315-382.

Levine, K. J. (2001). Election 2000, the presidential debates, and Nader: Would participation have made a difference? American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 2219-2231.

Louden, A. (2006). Gauging unique qualities of political debates in state level races: The case of Montana gubernatorial and North Carolina US Senate elections (2006). In P. Riley (Ed.), Engaging argument (pp. 342-347). Washington, DC: National Communication Association.

Louden, A. (2005). Research non-Presidential Debates: A moment in time. Contemporary Argumentation & Debate, 26, 41-50

Lowery, D. T., Bridges, J. A., & Barefield, P. A. (1990). The effects of network TV "instant analysis and querulous criticism" following the first Bush-Dukakis debate. Journalism Quarterly, 67, 814-825.

Lubell, S. (1962). Personalities vs. issues. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 151-162). Bloomington: Indiana University Press

Lucaties, J. L. (1989). Rhetorical legitimacy, <public trust> and the presidential debates. Argumentation and Advocacy: JAFA, 25, 231-238.

Lupfer, M. B., & Wald, K. D. (1979). An experimental study of the first Cater-Ford debate. Experimental Study of Politics, 7, 20-40.

Madsen, A. (1991). Partisan commentary and the first 1988 presidential debate. Argumentation and Advocacy: Journal of the American Forensic Association, 27,100-113.

Madsen, A. (1989, November). Synecdoche and surrogates: Spin control in the first 1988 presidential debate. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association. San Francisco.

Magarian, G. P. (1992). Fighting exclusion from televised presidential debates: Minor-party candidates' standing to challenge sponsoring organizations' tax-exempt status. Michigan Law Review, 90, 838-885.

Mahtesian, C. (2000, April). The debate over debates. Campaign and Elections, 21, 30, 32, 40, 60.

Maier, J., & Faas, T. (2003). The affected German voter: Televized debates, follow-up communication and candidates evaluations. Communications, 28, 383-404.

Majdik, Z. P., Kephart III, J. M., & Goodnight, G. T. (2008). The presidential debates of 2004: Contested moments in the democratic experiment. Controversia, 6, 13-38.

Makau, J. M., McKay, J. J., & Golden, J. L. (1987, May). Journalists and the 1984 presidential debates. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal Canada.

Marietta, M. (2009). The Absolutist advantage: Sacred rhetoric in contemporary presidential debate. Political Communication, 26, 388 - 411

Marion, J. M.(2004, April). Why debate? An examination of the origins and format of campaign debates in U.S. senate elections. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the The Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, Illinois.

Marshall, J. M. (2001, Jan/Feb). The debates: One-man band. Columbia Journalism Review, 39, 28-30. [Jim Lehrer]

Martel, M. (1981). Debate preparations in the Reagan camp: An insider's view. Speaker and Gavel, 18, 34-46.

Martel, M. (1983). Political campaign debates: Issues, strategies, and tactics. New York, NY: Longman.

Martel, M. (1984). Political campaign debates: Images strategies, and tactics. Campaigns and Elections, 4, 13-27.

Matera, F. R., & Salwen, M. B. (1996). Unwieldy questions: Circuitous answers? Journalists as panelists in presidential election debates. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 40, 309-317.

Matsaganis, M., & Weingarten, C. (2001). The 2000 U.S. presidential debate versus the 2000 Greek Prime Minister debate. American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 2398-2409.

Mayer, M. A., & Carlin, D. B. (1994). Debates as an educational tool. In D. B. Carlin and M. S. McKinney (Eds.) The 1992 presidential debate in focus (pp. 127-138). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Maynard, C. A. (1997). Manufacturing voter confidence: A video analysis of the American 1976 presidential and vice-presidential debates. Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television, 17, 523-563.

Mazo, E, Moos, M., Hoffman, H., & Wheeler, H. (1962). The great debates: An occasional paper on the role of the political process in the free society. Santa Barbara, CA: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions.

McCall, J. M. (1984). The panelists as pseudo-debates: An evaluation of the questions and questioners in the presidential debates of 1980. Journal of the American Forensics Association, 21, 97-104.

McClain, T. B. (1989). Secondary school debate pedagogy. Argumentation and Advocacy: JAFA, 25, 203-4.

McIntosh, E. G. (2002). Policy shifts in the presidential debates. Psychological Reports, 90, 930-

McIntosh, E. G. (2002). Ratings of issues in presidential debates of 2000 by students. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 94, 264-?

McIntosh, E. G. (1993). Do presidential debates contribute to a change in voters' attitudes? Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77, 545-?

McIntosh, E. G. (1989). Perceived bias in the presidential debates. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 68, 462-.

McKerns, J. P. (1993). Honest Rutherford Hayes nurtured “Good Press”: nineteenth P\president and the press. Media history digest, 13, 18-22.

McKerrow, R. E. (1989). Symposium on the presidential debates: An editorial note. Argumentation and Advocacy: JAFA, 25, 195-196.

McKinney, M. S. (2012). Debating democracy: The history and effects of U. S. presidential debates. Spectra, 48, 8-10.

McKinney, M. S. (2005). Engaging citizens through presidential debates: Does the format matter? in M. S. McKinney, L. L. Kaid, D. G. Bystrom, & D. B. Carlin (Eds.). Communicating politics: Engaging the public in democratic life (pp. 209-221). New York: Peter Lang.

McKinney, M. S. (2005). Let the people speak: The public's agenda and presidential town hall debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 49, 198-212.

McKinney, M. S. (1994). Design and implementation of the focus group study. In D. B. Carlin and M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 21-35). Westport, CT: Praeger.

McKinney, M. S, & Banwart, M. C. (2005). Rocking the youth vote through debate: examining the effects of a citizen versus journalist controlled debate on civic engagement. Journalism Studies, 6, 153 - 163.

McKinney, M. S., & Carlin, D. B. (2004). Political campaign debates. In L. L. Kaid (Ed.), Handbook of political communication research (pp. 203-234). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publisher.

McKinney, M. S., Dudash, E. A., & Hodgkinson, G. (2003). Viewer reactions to the 2000 presidential debates: Learning issues and image information. In L. L Kaid, J. C. Tedesco, D. G. Bystrom, & M. S. McKinney (Eds.) The millennium election: Communication in the 2000 campaign (pp. 43-58) . New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

McKinney, M. S., Houston, J. B., & Hawthorne, J. (2014). Social watching a 2012 Republican presidential primary debate. American Behavioral Scientist, 58, 556-573.

McKinney, M. S., Kaid, L. L., & Robertson, T. A. (2001). The front-runner, contenders, and also-rans: Effects of watching a 2000 Republican primary debate. American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 2232-2251.

McKinney, M. S., & Lamoureux, E. R. (1999). Citizen response to the 1996 presidential debates: Focusing on the focus group. In L. L. Kaid and Bystrom, D. G. (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 163-177). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

McKinney, M. S., & Rill, L. A. (2009). Not your parents' presidential debates: Examining the effects of the CNN/YouTube debates on young citizens' civic engagement. Communication Studies, 60, 392-406.

McKinney, M. S., Rill, L. A., & Watson, R. (2011). Who framed Sarah Palin? Viewer reactions to the 2008 Vice Presidential debate. American Behavioral Scientist, 55, 212-231.

McKinney, M. S., Spiker, J. A., & Kaid, L. L. (1998). DebateWatch '96 and citizen engagement: Building democracy through citizen communication. In T. J. Johnson, C. E. Hayes, & S. P. Hayes (Eds.), Engaging the public: How government and the media can reinvigorate American democracy (pp.185-193). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

McKinnon, L. M., & Tedesco, J. C. (1999). The influence of medium and media commentary on presidential debate effects. In L. L. Kaid and Bystrom, D. G. (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 191-206). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

McKinnon, L. M., Tedesco, J. C., & Kaid, L. L. (1993). The third 1992 presidential debate: Channel and commentary effects. Argumentation and Advocacy: Journal of the American Forensics Association, 30, 106-118.

McKown, J. (2005). Questoins of practice: the 2004 South Carolina Senate debates. Contemporary Argumentation & Debate, 26, 63-91.

McLeod, J. M., Bybee, C. R., & Durall, J. A. (1979). Equivalence of informed participation: The 1976 presidential debates as a source of influence. In G. C. Wilhoit & H. deBock (Eds.), Mass communication review yearbook 2 (pp.469-493). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

McLeod, J., Durall, J., Ziemke, D., & Bybee, C. (1979). Reactions of young and older voters: Expanding the context of effects. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 348-367). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

McNabb, N. D. (1994). Approaching great debates: An examination of format in the 1992 presidential debates. Unpublished master's thesis, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI.

Meadow, R. G. (1983). Televised campaign debates as whistle-stop speeches. In W. C. Adams (Ed.), Television coverage of the 1980 presidential campaign (pp. 89-102). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Meadow, R. G. (1987). A speech by any other name. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 4, 207-210.

Meadow, R., & Jackson-Beeck, M. (1978). A comparative perspective on television debates: Issue evolution in 1960 and 1976. In G. Bishop, R. Meadow, and M. Jackson-Beeck (Ed.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 33-58). New York: Praeger.

Meadow, R., & Jackson-Beeck, M. (1978). Issue evolution: A new perspective on presidential debates. Journal of Communication, 28, 84-92.

Mehtretter Drury, S. A. (2012). More than a beard and a pasty forehead: The lessons of the 1960 Great Debate. Spectra, 48, 12-15.

Merritt, B. D. (1986). Jesse Jackson and television: Black image presentation and affect in the 1984 Democratic campaign debates. Journal of Black Studies, 16, 347-367.

Messaris, P., Eckman, B., & Grumpert, G. (1979). Editing structure in the televised versions of the 1976 presidential debates. Journal of Broadcasting, 23, 359-369.

Meyer, J., & Carlin, D. B. (1994). The impact of formats on voter reactions. In D. B. Carlin and M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 69-83). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Middleton, R. (1962). National TV debates and presidential voting decisions. Public Opinion Quarterly, 26, 426-429.

Milavsky, J. R., & Zhu, J-H.(1996) Equal time within televised presidential debates. In M. E. Stuckey (Ed.). The theory and practice of political communication research (pp. 93-121). Albany, NY: State University Press.

Milic, L. T. (1979). Grilling the pols: Q & A at the debates. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford 1976. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Miller, A., & MacKuen, M. (1979). Learning about the candidates: The 1976 presidential debates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 43, 326-346.

Miller, A., & MacKuen, M. (1979). Informing the electorate: Effects of the 1976 presidential debates. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 269-297). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Miller, J. L., & McKerrow, R. E. (2001). Political Argument and emotion: An analysis of 2000 presidential campaign discourse [looks at debates]. Contemporary Argumentation and Debate: The Journal of the Cross Examination Debate Association, 22, 43-58.

Mills, S. (1986). Rebuilding the presidential debates. Speaker and Gavel, 24, 41-51.

Mnnow, N. N., & Lamay, C. L. (2008). Inside the presidential debates: Their improbable past and promising future. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Minow, N. N., & Sloan, C. M. (1987). For great debates: A new plan for future presidential TV debates. A Twentieth Century Fund Paper. New York: Priority Press.

Minow, N. N., & Sloan, C. M. (1986). Putting on the candidates: The wse of television in presidential elections. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 486, 146-157.

Minow, N. N., Sloan, C. M., & Angulo, C. T. (1999). Open salvos: Who should participate in presidential debates: A Centruy Roundation Report, New York. http://www.tcf.org/Publications/ElectionReform/openingsalvos.pdf

Mitchell, L. (1979). With the whole nation watching: Report of the Twentieth Century Fund task force on televised presidential debates. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.

Morano, M. (1996). Manipulating the voters from inside spin alley. Insight, 12, 13-14.

Morello, J. T. (2005).. Questioning the questions: An examination of the "unpredictable" 2004 Bush-Kerry town hall debate. Argumentation and Advocacy, 41, 211-224.

Morello, J. T. (1992). The "look" and language of clash: Visual structuring of argument in the 1988 Bush-Dukakis debates. The Southern Communication Journal, 57, 205-218.

Morello, J. T. (1991). "Who won?": A critical examination of newspaper editorials evaluating nationally televised presidential debates. Argumentation and Advocacy: Journal of the American Forensic Association, 27, 114-125.

Morello, J. T. (1990, November). Post-presidential debate criticisms: An examination of the argumentative criteria newspaper editorials use to evaluate candidate debate performance. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association. Chicago, IL.

Morello, J. T. (1988). Argument and visual structuring in the 1984 Mondale-Reagan debates: The medium's influence on the perception of clash. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 52, 277-290.

Morello, J. T. (1988). Visual structuring of the 1976 and 1984 nationally televised presidential debates: Implications. Central States Speech Journal, 39, 233-243.

Morris, E. & Johnson, J. M. (2011). Strategic maneuvering in the 2008 Presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 55, 284-306.

Morrow, G. R. (1977). Changes in perceptions of Ford and Carter following the first presidential debate. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 45, 33-45.

Mueller, M. (2005). Dueling debates? A comparison of the US presidential debates 2004 and the German TV-duels 2002. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 2005 Annual Meeting, New York, NY, p1-24.

Mulder, R. (1978). The political effects of the Carter-Ford debate: An experimental analysis. Sociological Focus, 11, 33-45.

Munro, G. D., Ditto, P. H., Lockhart, L. K., Fagerlin, A., Gready, M., & Peterson, E. (2002). Biased assimilation of sociopolitical arguments: Evaluating the 1996 U.S. presidential debate. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 24, 15-26.

Murphy, J. M. (1992). Presidential debates and campaign rhetoric: Text within context. Southern Communication Journal, 57, 219-228.

Nagel, F., Maurer, M., & Reinemann, C. (2012). Is there a visual dominance in political communication? How verbal, visual, and vocal communication shape viewers' impressions of political candidates. Journal of Communication, 62, 833-850. (debates)

Nimmo, D., & Mansfield, M. W. (1985, Nov.). Change and persistence in candidate images: Presidential debates across 1976, 1980, and 1984. Paper presented at the Speech Communication Association Convention, Denver, CO.

Nimmo, D., Mansfield, M., & Curry, J. (1978). Persistence and change in candidate images. In G. Bishop, R. Meadow, & M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 140-156). New York: Praeger.

Nader, R., & Amato, T. (2001). So you want to run for president? Ha! Barriers to third-party entry. National Civic Review, 90, 163-172.

Norton, M. I., & Goethals, G. R. (2004). Spin (and pitch) doctors: Campaign strategies in televised political debates. Political Behavior, 26, 227-248.

O'Donnell, B. M (2012). An insiders;s view of the presidenial debates. Spectra, 48, 16-19.

Oft-Rose, N. (1989). The importance of ethos. Argumentation and Advocacy: JAFA, 25, 197-199.

O'Grady, G. (2014). The use of key in projecting face-threatening acts in televised political debate (UK). Text & Talk, 34, 685-711.

O'Keefe, G., & Mendelshon, H. (1979). Media influences and their anticipation. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 405-417). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Oldenburg, C. (2015). Re“Characterizing” the anecdote: Synecdoche and ethotic argument in presidential debate rhetoric. Communication Studies, 66, 103–120.

Olson, K. M. (2015). Unqualified support: Joe Biden's distgrubing perfomance of leadership, loyalty, and laughter in the 2012 vice presidential debate. In C. H. Palczewski, Ed., Disturbing argument (pp. 219-224). Routledge, New York.

Olson, K. M. (2005). Analyzing televised political debates in the 2004 election cycle. Argumentation and Advocacy, 41, 191-195.

Owen, D. (1995). The debate challenge: Candidate strategies in the new media age. In K. E. Kendall (Ed.), Presidential campaign discourse: Strategic communication problems (pp. 135-155) Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Owen, D. (1991). Media Messages in American presidential elections. Greenwood Press. (see chap 5, pp. 111-139.

Palmer, U. S. (1949). The western speeches of President Hayes. Western Speech, 13, 24-26.

Parker, W. W (1953). Rutherford B. Hayes as a student of speech at Kenyon College. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 39, 291-295.

Parson, D. W. (1985). On the education of a TV debate critic. In J. R. Cox, M. O. Sillars, & G. B. Walker (Eds.), Argument and Social Practice: Proceedings of the Fourth SCA/AFA conference on Argumentation (pp. 211-218). Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.

Parson, D. W. (1989). Congregation by segregation: An analysis of argument strategies in the first 1988 presidential debate. In B. E. Gronbeck (Ed.), Spheres of argument: Proceedings of the sixth SCA/AFA Conference on Argumentation (pp. 136-139). Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.

Patterson, M. L., Churchill, M. E., Burger, G. K., & Powell, J. L. (1992). Verbal and nonverbal modality effects on impressions of political candidates: Analysis from the 1984 presidential debates. Communication Monographs, 59, 231-242.

Patterson, T. E. (2000). Election 2000: How citizens “see” a presidential debate. Boston: The Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy; John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.

Payne, J. G. (2014). Crafting the mediated image: Political ads, debates, and issues in the 2012 U.S. presidential campaign. American Behavioral Scientist, 58, 495-496.

Payne, J. G., Golden, J. L., Marlier, J., & Ratzan, S. C. (1989). Perceptions of the 1988 presidential and vice presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 32, 425-435.

Perkins, S. J., & Smith, G. L. (1994). The gender gap? Male and female reactions to the 1992 presidential debate. In D. B. Carlin and M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 175-186). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Parry-Giles, T., Parry-Giles, S. J. (2015). Expanding the discipline's debate contributions: New potentials, beyond effects. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 101, 113-126.

Pfau, M. (2002). The subtle nature of presidential debate influence. The Journal of the American Forensic Association: Argumentation and Advocacy, 38, 251-261.

Pfau, M. (1988). Intra-party political debate and issue learning. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 16, 99-112.

Pfau, M. (1987). The influence of intraparty political debates on candidate preference. Communication Research, 14, 687-697.

Pfau, M., & Eveland, W. P. (1994). Debates versus other communication sources: The pattern of information and influence. In D. B. Carlin & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 155-173). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Pfau, M., & Eveland, W. P., Jr. (1996). Influence of traditional and non-traditional news media in the 1992 election campaign. Western Journal of Communication, 60, 214-232.

Pfau, M. & Kang, J. G. (1991). The impact of relational messages on candidate influence in televised political debates. Communication Studies, 42/2, 114-128.

Pfau, M., & Kang, J. G. (1989, November). The impact of relational and nonverbal communication in political debate influence. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association. San Francisco, CA.

Phifer, G. (1951). Andrew Johnson at Cleveland and St. Louis, 1966: A study in textual authenticity. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 37, 455-

Pickering, B. A. (2015). Digital democratic voices: Intersecting student research, Twitter, and presidential debates. Communication Teacher, 29, 63-70.

Pingree, R. J., Scholl, R. M., & Quenette, A. M (2012). Effects of postdebate coverage on spontaneous policy reasoning. Journal of Communication, 62, 643-658.

Political debates (1998). Broadcasting & the Law, 27, 5-6. [FCC ruling exempting pol debates]

Polsby, N. E. (1979). Debatable thoughts on presidential debates. In A. Ranney (Ed.), The past and future of presidential debates (pp. 175-186). Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute.

Prentice, C. (2005). Third party candidates in political debates: Muted groups struggling to express themselves. Speaker and Gavel, 42, 1-12.

Prentice, D. B. (1987/88). Political debates and their application to the teaching of Lincoln-Douglas debate. The Forensics Educator, 2, 13-17.

The Presidential Debates: A Teacher’s Guide (2002). The Commission on Presidential Debates in partnership with Kids Voting USA, http://debate.uvm.edu/dcpdf/cpd2000.pdf

Presidential debates: Hearing before the subcommittee on elections of the committee on House administration, House of Representative. June 17, 1993.

Presidential prime time (1988). Broadcasting the first Dukakis Bush debate. Broadcasting, 115, 8-.

Racine Group, The (2002). White paper on televised political campaign debates. Argumentation and Advocacy, 38, 199-218.

Ragsdale, G. (1997). The 1996 Gore-Kemp vice presidential debate. In R. V. Friendenberg (ed.). Rhetorical studies of national political debates - 1996 (pp. 31-60). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Ranney, A. (Ed.) (1979). The past and future of presidential debates. Washington, D. C.: American Enterprise Institute.

Jamin Raskin, J. (1999). The Debate Gerrymander, Texas Law Review, 77, 1943-.

Ray, R. F. (1961). Thomas E. Dewey: The great Oregon debate of 1948. In R. Reid (Ed.), American public address: Studies in honor of Albert Craig Baird (pp. 245-270). Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.

Reber, B. H., & Benoit, W. L. (2001). Presidential debate stories accentuate the negative. Newspaper Research Journal, 22, 30-43.

Reinemann, C., & Wilke, J. (2007). It's the debates, stupid! How the introduction of televised debates changed the portrayal of Chancellor candidates in the German press, 1949—2005. International Journal of Press/Politics, 12, 92-111.

Reinemann, C., & Maurer, M. (2005). Unifying or polarizing? Short-term effects and postdebate consequences of different rhetorical strategies in televised debates. Journal of Communication, 55, 775-794.

Reynolds, B. (1997). Who gets in? Media Studies Journal, 11, 54-59.

Rhea, D. M. (2012). There They Go Again: The use of humor in prsidential debates 1060-2008. Argumentation and Advocacy, 49, 115-131.

Riley, P., & Hollihan, T. A. (1981). The 1980 presidential debates: A content analysis of the issues and arguments. Speaker and Gavel, 18, 47-59.

Riley, P., & Hollihan, T. A. (1980, November). The 1976 presidential debates: An analysis of the issues and arguments. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Central States Speech Association, Chicago, IL.

Ritter, K. W. (Special Ed.) (1981). Issue entitled: The presidential debates. Speaker & Gavel, 18,

Ritter, K., & Hellweg, S. A. (1986). Televised presidential primary debates: A new national forum for political debating. Journal of the American Forensics Association, 23, 1-14.

Ritter, K., & Henry, D. (1990). The 1980 Reagan-Carter presidential debate. In R. V. Friedenberg (Ed.), Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1988. (pp. 69-93). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Roberts, M. S., & Williams, A. P. (2003). Lockbox and fuzzy math: Associations of viewers' debate recall and partisan strength in the 2000 presidential campaign. In L. L Kaid, J. C. Tedesco, D. G. Bystrom, & M. S. McKinney (Eds.) The millennium election: Communication in the 2000 campaign (pp. 73-86) . New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

Robinson, J. (1979). Poll results on the debates. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 262-268). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Rose, D. D. (1979). Citizen uses of the Ford-Carter debates. Journal of Politics, 41, 214-221.

Rosenberg, W. L., & Elliot, W. R. (1987). Effect of debate exposure on evaluation of 1984 vice-presidential candidates. Journalism Quarterly, 63, 55-64,262+.

Rosenthal. P. I. (1963). Ethos in the presidential campaign of 1960: A study of the basic persuasive process of the Kennedy-Nixon television debates. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles.

Rouner, D., & Perloff, R. M. (1988) Selective perception of outcome of the first 1984 presidential debate. Journalism Quarterly, 65, 141-147, 240.

Rowland, R. ((2013) The first 2012pPresidential campaign debate: The decline of reason in presidential debate. Communication Studies, 64, 528-547

Rowland, R. (1986). The substance of the 1980 Carter-Reagan debate. Southern Speech Communication Journal, 51, 142-165.

Rowland, R., & Garcia, R. (1985). The Democratic debates: Does format make a difference. In J. R. Cox, M. O. Sillar, & G. B. Walker (Eds.), Argument and social practice: Proceedings of the fourth SCA/AFA Conference on Argumentation. Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.

Rowland, R., & Voss, C. (1987). A structural functional analysis of the assumptions behind presidential debates. In J. W. Wenzel (Ed.), Argument and critical practices (pp. 239-247).

Ryan, H. S. (1994). The 1988 Bush-Dukakis presidential debates. In R. V. Friedenberg (Ed.), Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1992 (pp. 145-166). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Salant, R. (1962). The television debates: A revolution that deserves a future. Public Opinion Quarterly, 26, 335-350.

Salant, R. (1979). The good but not great numbers: Some random personal notes. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 175-186). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Samovar, L. A. (1965). Ambiguity and unequivocation in the Kennedy-Nixon debates: A rhetorical analysis. Western Speech, 29, 211-218.

Samovar, L. A. (1962). Ambiguity and unequivocation in the Kennedy-Nixon television debates. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 48, 277-279.

Sarnoff. R. (1962). An NBC view. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: ground, perspective, effects (pp. 56-64). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Sauter, K. (1994). The 1976 Mondale-Dole vice presidential debate. In R. V. Friedenberg (Ed.), Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1992. (pp. 45-68). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Sci, S. A., & Dewberry D. R. (2015). Something funny? The Laughing Joe Biden meme as digital topoi within political argumentation. In C. H. Palczewski, Ed., Disturbing argument (pp. 232-237). Routledge, New York.

Scheufele, D. A.. Kim, E., & Brossard, D. (2007). How split-ccreen debate coverage influences evaluation of presidential debates. Communication Research, 34, 3-24.

Schmid, K H. (2000). Public broadcast stations' exclusion of candidates from debates: A step toward political independence? Communication Law and Policy, 1, 115-154.

Schram, S. F. (1991). The post-modern presidency and the grammar of electronic electioneering. [Benson-Quayle debate is example]. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 8, 210-216.

Schroeder, A. (2000). Media sponsorship of the 2000 primary debates. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 5, 104-111.

Schroeder, A. (2000). Presidential Debates: Forty Years of High Risk TV. New York: Columbia University Press.

Schroeder, A. (2000, Oct. 13). Who wants to be a debater? Chronicle of Higher Education B13.

Schroeder, A. (1996). Watching between the lines: Presidential debate as television. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 1, 57-75.

Schrott, P. R. (1990). Electoral consequences of `winning' televised campaign debates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 54, 567-586.

Schrott, P. R., & Lanoue, D. J. (1992). How to win a televised debate. Candidate strategies and voter response in Germany, 1972-87. British Journal of Political Science, 22, 445-467.

Schudson, M. (2000). Image: The Kennedy-Nixon debates. Media Studies Journal, 14, 122-124.

Scott, R. L. (1981). You cannot not debate: The debate over the 1980 presidential debates. Speaker and Gavel, 18, 28-33.

Sears, D., & Chaffee, S. (1979). Uses and effects of the 1976 debates: An overview of empirical studies. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 223-261). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Seiter, J. S. (1999). Does communicating nonverbal disagreement during an opponent's speech affect the credibility of the debater in the background? Psychology Reports, 84, 855-861.

Seiter, J. S. (2001). Silent derogation and perceptions of deceptiveness: Does communicating nonverbal disbelief during an opponent's speech affect perceptions of debater's veracity? Communication Research Reports, 7, 203-209.

Seiter, J. S., Kinzer, H. J., & Weger, H. (in press). Background Behavior in Live Debates: The effects of the implicit Ad Hominem fallacy. Communication Reports.

Seiter, J. S., Abraham, J. A., & Nakagama, B. T. (1998). Split-screen versus single-screen formats in televised debates: Does access to an opponent's nonverbal behaviors affect viewer's perception of a speaker's credibility? Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86, 491-497.

Seiter, J. S., & Weger, H. Jr. (2005). Audience perceptions of candidates' appropriateness as a function of nonverbal behaviors displayed during televised political debates. Journal of Social Psychology,145, 225-235.

Self, J. W. (2007). Debating the 1976 debates: Establishing a tradition of negotiations. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 37, 331-348.

Self, J. W. (2005). The first debate over the debates: How Kennedy and Nixon negotiated the 1960 presidential debates. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 35, 361-375.

Seltz, H., & Yoakam, R. (1962). Production diary of the debates. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 73-126). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Seltz, H., & Yoakam, R. (1979). Production diary of the debates. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 110-157). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Senior, P. (2008). Electoral impact of televised leaders' debates on Australian Federal elections. Australian Journal of Political Science,43, 443-.

Shaw, S. (2000). Language, gender and floor apportionment in political debates. Discourse & Society: An International Journal for the Study of Discourse and Communication in Their Social, Political and Cultural Contexts. 11, 401-18.

Sheckels, T. F., & Bell, L. C. (2003). Character versus competence: Evidence from the 2000 presidential debates and elections. In L. L Kaid, J. C. Tedesco, D. G. Bystrom, & M. S. McKinney (Eds.) The millennium election: Communication in the 2000 campaign (pp. 59-71) . New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

Shields, S. A., & MacDowell, K. A. (1987). "Appropriate" emotions in politics: Judgments of a televised debate. Journal of Communication, 37, 78-89.

Schill, D., & Kirk, R. (2014). Courting the swing voter: “Real Time” insights into the 2008 and 2012 U.S. presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 58, 536-555.

Short, B. (1986). A goals criteria approach: Preparing the public to evaluate presidential debates. Speaker and Gavel, 24, 23-35.

Sigelman, L., & Sigelman, C. K. (1984). Judgments of the Carter-Reagan debate: The eyes of the beholders. Public Opinion Quarterly, 48, 624-628.

Simons, H., & Leibowitz, K. (1979). Shifts in candidate images. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 398-304). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Smith, C., & Voth, B. (2002). The role of humor in political argument: How "strategery" and "lockboxes" changed a political campaign. Argumentation and Advocacy, 39, 110-129.

Smith, C. A., & K. B. Smith (1994). The 1984 Reagan-Mondale presidential debates. In R. V. Friedenberg (Ed.), Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1992. (pp. 95-119). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Smith, R. G. (1977). The Carter-Ford debates: Some perceptions from academe. Central States Speech Journal, 28, 250-257.

Spalding-Andreolle, D. (2001). From Whistle-Blowing to High-Powered Rhetoric: The Language of Mediation in the 2000 U.S. Presidential Debates. La-Revue-du-GERAS, 31-33: 189-202.

Spottss, S.E. (1992). The Presidential Debates Act of 1992. Harvard Journal of Legislation, 29, 561-580.

Stamm, K. R. (1989, August). Effects of the 1988 debates on candidate characterization. Paper presented to Association for Education in Journalism & Mass Communication, Portland, OR.

Stanton, F. (1962). A CBS view. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 65-72). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Stepp, C. S. (1987). The role of journalists' questions in campaign forums. Political Communication and Persuasion, 4, 279-288.

Steeper, F. (1978). Public response to Gerald Ford's statements on Eastern Europe in the second debate. In G. Bishop, R. Meadow, & M. Jackson-Beeck (Ed.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 81-101). New York: Praeger.

Stein, K. (2004) Points of Stasis in the 1960 and 2000 Presidential Debates. Speaker & Gavel, 41, 51-62.

Streeck, J. (2008). Gesture in political communication: A case study of the Democratic presidential candidates during the 2004 primary campaign. Research on Language & Social Interaction, 41, 154-186.

Stroud, N. J., Stephens, M., & Pye, D. (2011).  The influence of debate viewing context on political cynicism and strategic interpretations. American Behavioral Scientist. 55, 270-283.

Sullivan, P. A. (1989). The 1984 vice-presidential debate: A case study of female and male framing in political campaigns. Communication Quarterly, 37, 329-343.

Swanson, L., & Swanson, D. (1978). The agenda-setting functions of the first Ford-Carter debate. Communication Monographs, 45, 347-353.

Swerdlow, J. L. (Ed.) (1987). Presidential debates 1988 and beyond. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly. Swerdlow, J. L. (1987).

The strange--and sometimes surprising--history of presidential debates in America. In J. L. Swerdlow (Ed.), Presidential debates 1988 and beyond (pp. --16). Washington, D. C.: Congressional Quarterly.

Swerdlow, J. L. (1984). Beyond debate: A paper on televised presidential debates. New York: Twentieth Century Fund.

Sypher, B. D. (1994). The focus group as a research tool. In D. B. Carlin and M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 37-51). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Tannenbaum, P., Greenberg, B., & Silverman, F. (1962). Candidate images. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Background, perspective, effects (pp. 271-288). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

The Joint Appearances of Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice President Richard M. Nixon: Presidential Campaign of 1960 (1961). Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office.

Robertson, T. (2005). A Perfect Storm: A case study analysis of the defeat of Tom Daschle by John Thune in the 2004 South Dakota senate race. American Behavioral Scientist, 49, 326-342.

Taofu, Z. & Lijuan C. (2013). Political “Horseracing” Show in mediaeEra -AnaAnalysis of the television debate in 2012 American presidential election from the perspective of political communication. Intercultural Communication Studies, 22, 78-85.

Tiemens, R. K. (1978). Televisions portrayal of the 1976 presidential debates: An analysis of visual content. Communication Monographs, 45, 362-370

Tiemens, R .K. (1989). The visual context of argument: An analysis of the September 25, 1988 presidential debate. In B. E. Gronbeck (Ed.), Spheres of argument: Proceedings of the sixth SCA/AFA Conference on Argumentation (pp. 140-146). Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.

Tiemens, R. K., Hellweg, S. A., Kipper, P., Phillips, S. L. (1985). An integrative verbal and visual analysis of the Carter-Ford debate. Communication Quarterly, 33, 34-42.

Ţirlea, A-M. (2014). The role of the final debate in a campaign's strategy. Journal of Media Research, 7, 66-81.

Tonn, M. B. (1994). Flirting with Perot: Voter ambivalence about the third candidate. In D. B. Carlin and M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 109-123). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Tonn, M. (1993). The voters perspective. Review of the 1992 presidential debates, 4, May 1993. Commission on President Debates. Washington DC: Freedom Forum. 25-27.

Trent, J. S. (1994). The 1984 Bush-Ferraro vice presidential debate. In R. V. Friedenberg (Ed.), Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1992 (2nd Ed). (pp. 121-144). Westport, CT: Praeger. Trent, J. S.,

Trent, J. S., Schmisseur, A. M., & Gauder, G. E. (2000). Debate strategies then and now: A comparative analysis of two women candidates. T. A. Hollihan (Ed.), Argument at century's end: Reflecting on the past and envisioning the future (pp. 411-418). Annandale, VA: National Communication Association. [Ferraro & Dole]

Tschirhart, P. (2015). Third party rhetoic and the constitution of an audience. In C. H. Palczewski, Ed., Disturbing argument (pp. 238-243). Routledge, New York.

Tsfati, Y. (2003). Debating the debate: The impact of exposure to debate news coverage and its interaction with exposure to the actual debate. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 8, 70-86.

Turcotte, J. (2015). The news norms and values of presidential debate Agendas: An analysis of format and moderator influence on question content. Mass Communication & Society, 18, 239-258.

Valenzano III, J. M., & Edwards, J. A. (2012). The debate confessional: Newt Gingrich, John King and atoning for Past Sins. Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric, 2, 30-38.

Vancil, D. L., & Pendell, S. D. (1987). The myth of viewer-listener disagreement in the first Kennedy-Nixon debate. Central States Speech Journal, 38, 16-27.

Vancil, D. L., & Pendell, S. D. (1984). Winning presidential debates: An analysis of criteria influencing audience response. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 48, 62-74.

Vanocur, S. (2005). A presidential Debates retrospective. In M. S. McKinney, L. L. Kaid, Bystrom, D. G., & Carlin, D. B. (Eds.), Communicating politics: Engaging the public in democratic life (pp. 235-239). New York: Peter Lang.

Wald, K., & Lupfer, M. (1978). The presidential debate as a civics lesson. Public Opinion Quarterly, 42, 342-353.

Wall, V., Golden, J., & James, H. (1988). Perceptions of the 1984 presidential debates and a select 1988 presidential primary debate. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 18, 541-563.

Warner, B. R., & McKinney, M. S.  (2013). To unite and divide: The polarizing effect of presidential debates. Communication Studies, 64, 508-527.

Warner, B. R., Carlin, D. B., Winfrey, K., Schnoebelen, J., & Trosanovski, M. (2011). Will the “real” candidates for president and vice president please stand up? 2008 pre- and post-debate viewer perceptions of candidate image. American Behavioral Scientist, 55, 232-252.

Watts, M. (2002). Watching debates: A focus group analysis of voters. Campaign and Elections, 23, 27-28, 30, 32, 44.

Weaver, D., & Drew, D. (1995). Voter learning in the 1992 presidential election: Did the "nontraditional" media and debates matter? Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 72, 45-72.

Weaver, D., Drew, D., & Wu, W. (1998). Voter interest and participation in the 1996 presidential election: Did the debates matter? In T. J. Johnson, C. E. Hayes, & S. P. Hayes (Eds.), Engaging the public: How government and the media can reinvigorate American democracy (pp.87-95). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Weger Jr., H., Seiter, J. S., Jacobs, K. A., & Akbulut, V. (2010). Perceptions of debater effectiveness and appropriateness as a function of decreasingly polite strategies for responding to nonverbal disparagement in televised political debates. Argumentation & Advocacy, 47, 39-54.

Weiler, M. (1989). The 1988 electoral debates and debate theory. Argumentation and Advocacy: JAFA, 25, 214-219.

Weinberger, C. W. (1996, October 7). Presidential debates-or anchor debates? Forbes.

Weiss, R. O. (1981). The presidential debates in their political context: The issue-image interface in the 1980 campaign. Speaker and Gavel, 18, 22-27.

Wells, W. T. (2000). An analysis of attacking, acclaiming, and defending strategies in the 1976-1984 presidential debates. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Missouri, Columbia.

Werling, D. S., Salvador, M., Sillars, M. O., & Vaughn, M. A. (1987). Presidential debates: Epidectic merger of images and issues in values. In J. W. Wenzel (Ed.), Argument and critical practices (pp. 229-238). Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.

Williams, D. E. (2001). Debate Watch 2000: Reflections of a moderator. Contemporary Argumentation and Debate: The Journal of the the Cross Examination Debate Association, 22, 100-106.

Wills, G. (2010). Do the Lincoln-Douglas debates really matter? Argumentation & Advocacy, 46, 150-158.

Wilson, K. H. (2003). The racial politics of imitation in the Nineteenth Century. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 89, 89-108.

Winkler, C. K., & Black, C. F. (1993). Assessing the 1992 presidential and vice presidential debates: The public rationale. Argumentation and Advocacy, 30, 77-87.

Winkler, C., & Panetta, E. (1989, May). Enthymemes in public discourse in the 1988 presidential debates. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Eastern Communication Association, Ocean City, MD.

Winning the debate after the debate: Candidates supporters descend on the press, trying to put their man in best light, ABC, NBC, CBS don't present them on their live broadcast. (1988) Broadcasting, 115, 27-.

Whitney, D. C., & Goldman, S. B. (1985). Media use and time of vote decision: A study of the 1980 presidential election. Communication Research, 12, 511-529.

Windt, T. O. (1994). The 1960 Kennedy-Nixon presidential debates. In R. V. Friedenberg (Ed.), Rhetorical studies of national political debates: 1960-1992 (2nd ed.). (pp. 1-27). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Yawn, M., & Beatty, B. (2000). Debate-induced opinion change: What matters?. American Politics Quarterly, 28, 270-285.

Yawn, M., Ellsworth, K., Beatty, B., & Kahn, K. F. (1998). How a presidential primary debate changed attitudes of audience members. Political Behavior, 20, 155-181. (live audience assessed)

Yoder, J., & Mims, H. (1979). The significance of written texts. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford, 1976 (pp. 449-452). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Kyu Ho Youm, K. H. (200). Editorial rights of public broadcasting stations vs. access for minor political candidates to television debates. Federal Communications Law Journal, 52, 687-724

Zakahi, W. R. (2004). Presidential debates and candidate image formation: 1992, 1996, 2000. (pp. 151-175). In K. Hacker (Ed.), Presidential candidate images. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

Zakahi, W. R., & Hacker. K. L. (1995). Televised presidential debates and candidates images. In K. L. Hacker (Ed.), Candidate images in presidential elections (pp. 99-122). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Zarefsky, D. (2015). What "went wrong" in the first Obama-Romney debate. In C. H. Palczewski, Ed., Disturbing argument (pp. 244-249). Routledge, New York.

Zarefsky, D. (1990). Lincoln, Douglas and slavery: In the crucible of public debate. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Zarefsky, D. (1986). The Lincoln-Douglas debates revisited: The evolution of political argument. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 72, 162-184.

Zeligson, W. S. (1994). Pool coverage, press access, and presidential debates: What’s wrong with this picture? Cardozo Law Review, 1371-1399.

Zhu, J., Milavsky, J. R., & Biswas, R. (1994). Do televised debates affect image perception more than issue knowledge? A study of the first 1992 presidential debate. Human Communication Research, 20, 302-333.

Zichermann, S. (2006). Bush's straight talk erases Kerry's scholarly chalk. The U.S. presidential debate of 2004: Who won the image war? Semiotica, 162, 323-339.

Ziegler, R., Friederike, A., & Diehl, M. (2007). Communication modality and biased processing: A study on the occasion of the German 2002 Election TV debate. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 2, 175-184.